The Nehruvian consensus on Indian foreign policy refers to the foundational principles and approaches that

guided India's external relations during the tenure of Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister, and
continued to influence Indian foreign policy for several decades. This consensus was shaped by Nehru's
vision of India as a newly independent nation committed to certain core principles and priorities in its
interactions with the world.

Key Elements of Nehruvian Consensus:

1. Non-Alignment:

Nehru advocated for a policy of non-alignment, which meant staying neutral and independent in the Cold
War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. Non-alignment aimed to safeguard India's
sovereignty, promote peace, and avoid entanglement in military alliances.

2. Anti-Colonialism and Anti-Imperialism:

Nehru was deeply committed to anti-colonialism and anti-imperialism, reflecting India's own struggle for
independence from British colonial rule. He supported decolonization efforts around the world and
championed the cause of newly independent nations in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

3. Panchsheel Principles:

Nehru advocated for the Panchsheel principles, also known as the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence,
which were enshrined in agreements between India and China in the 1950s. These principles emphasized
mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-aggression, non-interference in internal affairs,
equality, and mutual benefit.

4. Internationalism and Multilateralism:

Nehru believed in India's active participation in international affairs and advocated for a multilateral
approach to global challenges. India played a prominent role in international forums like the United Nations,
where Nehru championed the cause of decolonization and nuclear disarmament.

5. Strategic Autonomy:

Despite India's non-alignment, Nehru emphasized the importance of maintaining strategic autonomy in
foreign policy decision-making. This meant that India would pursue its national interests independently,
without being influenced by the agendas of major powers.

Legacy and Impact:

The Nehruvian consensus on Indian foreign policy laid the foundation for India's approach to the world in
the early years of independence and beyond. It shaped India's identity as a leader of the Non-Aligned
Movement, a champion of Third World solidarity, and a vocal advocate for peace, disarmament, and
development.

While the Nehruvian consensus faced criticism and challenges over time, particularly during periods of
global instability and changing geopolitical dynamics, its core principles of non-alignment, anti-colonialism,
and strategic autonomy continued to inform India's foreign policy posture. Even as subsequent
governments pursued different strategies and priorities, elements of the Nehruvian legacy remained
embedded in India's diplomatic ethos and national identity.
 Indian Foreign Policy during the Cold War

India's foreign policy during the Cold War was characterized by a delicate balancing act of maintaining
non-alignment while navigating the pressures of bipolar global politics. This era saw India striving to assert
its sovereignty, support decolonization, and manage regional conflicts, all while avoiding entanglement in
the ideological and military blocs led by the United States and the Soviet Union.

Nehruvian Principles (1947-1964)

Non-Alignment Movement (NAM)

Under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, India became a founding member of the Non-Alignment Movement
(NAM). This policy aimed to steer clear of the Cold War rivalry between the US and the USSR,
emphasizing:

- Strategic Independence : Avoiding military alliances and preserving autonomy in foreign policy
decisions.
- Peaceful Coexistence : Promoting the Panchsheel principles, which included mutual respect for
sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-aggression, non-interference, equality and mutual benefit, and
peaceful coexistence.
- Support for Decolonization : Advocating for the independence of colonized nations in Asia, Africa, and
Latin America.

Key Diplomatic Efforts

- Kashmir Issue : The first Indo-Pak war (1947-48) and subsequent UN-mediated ceasefire left Kashmir a
contentious and unresolved issue. India's referral to the UN highlighted its commitment to internationalism
but also exposed its vulnerabilities in international diplomacy.
- Relations with China : The Panchsheel Agreement (1954) initially set a cooperative tone, but the 1962
Sino-Indian War over border disputes severely strained relations, marking a shift in India's perception of
regional security threats.

Indira Gandhi's Assertiveness (1966-1984)

Realpolitik and Strategic Partnerships

Indira Gandhi's tenure saw a pragmatic shift in India's foreign policy, emphasizing national security and
regional dominance.

- 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War : India's decisive intervention in East Pakistan, leading to the creation
of Bangladesh, showcased its willingness to use military power to shape regional outcomes. The
Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation (1971) provided strategic and military support against the
US-China-Pakistan axis.
- Nuclear Policy : The 1974 nuclear test ("Smiling Buddha") marked India's entry into the nuclear club,
driven by security concerns and regional rivalries, particularly with China and Pakistan.
Regional Dynamics

- SAARC Formation : India played a key role in the establishment of the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1985, aiming to promote regional collaboration and address common
challenges.

Rajiv Gandhi and Transition (1984-1991)

Continuation and Adaptation

Rajiv Gandhi's tenure involved continuity with subtle adaptations to changing global dynamics.

- Improving US Relations : The late 1980s saw an improvement in Indo-US relations, as India sought to
diversify its strategic partnerships and economic ties.
- Regional Peace Initiatives : Rajiv Gandhi actively engaged in regional peace efforts, including mediating
conflicts in Sri Lanka and the Maldives, emphasizing India's role as a regional stabilizer.

The Late Cold War Context

As the Cold War waned, India's foreign policy began to reflect the emerging multipolarity:

- Engagement with Both Blocs : India continued to balance its relationships with both the US and the
USSR, leveraging its strategic autonomy.
- Economic Considerations : Recognizing the importance of economic growth, India started to explore
economic liberalization, setting the stage for major reforms in the early 1990s.

Indian Foreign Policy During the 1990s

The 1990s marked a transformative period for Indian foreign policy, driven by significant domestic and
international changes. With the end of the Cold War, the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the onset of
economic liberalization, India had to recalibrate its foreign policy to navigate a unipolar world dominated by
the United States and an increasingly globalized economy.

Economic Liberalization and Global Integration

Economic Reforms

In 1991, India embarked on a series of economic reforms under the leadership of Prime Minister P.V.
Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Manmohan Singh. These reforms aimed at liberalizing the Indian
economy, attracting foreign investment, and integrating more fully into the global market.

1. Economic Liberalization : India dismantled the License Raj, reduced trade barriers, deregulated
industries, and welcomed foreign direct investment (FDI). These changes were critical in reshaping India's
economic landscape and its foreign policy priorities.
2. Shift from Ideological to Pragmatic Foreign Policy : Economic considerations began to drive foreign
policy decisions. India sought to build stronger economic ties with the United States, Western Europe, and
Southeast Asia.
 Look East Policy

The Look East Policy was a strategic initiative aimed at strengthening economic and strategic relations with
Southeast Asian nations. This policy recognized the economic dynamism of the region and sought to:

1. Expand Trade and Investment : Boost economic ties with ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian
Nations) countries through trade agreements and investment.
2. Enhance Strategic Cooperation : Foster political and security cooperation, including military-to-military
contacts and joint exercises.

Strategic Realignment and Partnerships

Improving US Relations

The end of the Cold War presented an opportunity to improve relations with the United States, which had
been strained during the Cold War due to India's non-alignment policy and close ties with the Soviet Union.

1. Economic Engagement : The economic reforms made India an attractive destination for US
businesses, leading to increased trade and investment.
2. Strategic Dialogue : The 1990s saw the initiation of a strategic dialogue between India and the US,
addressing issues such as security cooperation, non-proliferation, and regional stability.

Normalizing Relations with Israel

In 1992, India established full diplomatic relations with Israel, ending decades of non-recognition influenced
by solidarity with the Arab world and the Non-Aligned Movement. The normalization of ties led to:

1. Defense Cooperation : Robust military and technological collaboration, with Israel becoming a
significant supplier of defense equipment to India.
2. Agricultural and Technological Exchanges : Collaboration in areas such as agriculture, water
management, and high technology.

Regional Dynamics and Challenges

Relations with Pakistan

The 1990s saw fluctuating relations with Pakistan, marked by both diplomatic engagement and military
conflict.

1. Peace Initiatives : Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee's efforts to improve relations included the historic
bus journey to Lahore in 1999 and the Lahore Declaration, aimed at resolving bilateral issues peacefully.
2. Kargil Conflict : Despite these efforts, the decade ended with the Kargil War in 1999, where Pakistani
forces infiltrated Indian territory in the Kargil district of Jammu and Kashmir. The conflict reinforced the need
for robust defense preparedness and highlighted the volatility of Indo-Pak relations.

Managing China Relations

India's relationship with China remained complex, characterized by both cooperation and competition.

1. Economic Cooperation : Bilateral trade began to increase, driven by economic liberalization in both
countries.
2. Border Disputes : Ongoing border disputes continued to strain relations, but high-level visits and
confidence-building measures aimed to manage tensions.

Nuclear Policy and Strategic Autonomy

Nuclear Tests and Diplomacy

India's nuclear policy took a significant turn with the nuclear tests conducted in May 1998 under Prime
Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.

1. Pokhran-II Tests : The tests demonstrated India's nuclear capabilities and were a response to security
concerns, particularly the nuclear threat posed by China and Pakistan.
2. International Reactions and Sanctions : The tests led to international condemnation and economic
sanctions, primarily from the United States. However, India managed to navigate these challenges through
diplomatic engagement.

Strategic Autonomy

The nuclear tests underscored India's commitment to strategic autonomy, the principle of maintaining
independent decision-making in foreign and security policy.

1. Balancing Relations : India sought to balance its relations with major powers, including the US, Russia,
and China, while avoiding entanglement in military alliances.
2. Defending National Interests : The pursuit of an independent nuclear policy highlighted India's
determination to safeguard its national security interests.

Indian Foreign Policy under NDA-1 (1998-2004)

The first tenure of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government, led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari
Vajpayee, was a significant period in the evolution of Indian foreign policy. This era was marked by strategic
initiatives, nuclear policy assertiveness, and efforts to enhance India’s role on the global stage. Vajpayee's
leadership navigated complex international dynamics, regional conflicts, and emerging economic
opportunities.

Key Aspects of Indian Foreign Policy under NDA-1

1. Nuclear Policy and Strategic Autonomy

One of the defining moments of NDA-1 was India’s nuclear tests in 1998.

- Pokhran-II Tests : In May 1998, India conducted a series of five nuclear tests, codenamed "Operation
Shakti." These tests declared India as a nuclear weapons state and were aimed at bolstering national
security, particularly in the context of perceived threats from China and Pakistan.
- International Reactions and Diplomacy : The nuclear tests led to global condemnation and economic
sanctions, especially from the United States and other Western countries. However, through robust
diplomacy, India managed to engage in dialogue with the US, leading to the lifting of sanctions and paving
the way for future strategic cooperation.
 2. Enhancing US-India Relations

Despite the initial friction caused by the nuclear tests, the Vajpayee government successfully improved
relations with the United States.

- Jaswant Singh-Strobe Talbott Talks : A series of high-level dialogues between Indian External Affairs
Minister Jaswant Singh and US Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbott were crucial in addressing
post-nuclear test issues and normalizing bilateral relations.
- Foundation for Strategic Partnership : These talks laid the groundwork for a future strategic partnership,
including cooperation in areas like defense, technology, and counter-terrorism.

3. Improving Relations with China

The NDA government took significant steps to manage and improve relations with China.

- High-Level Visits : In 2003, Prime Minister Vajpayee visited China, marking a significant milestone in
Sino-Indian relations. This visit resulted in the signing of several agreements to enhance economic
cooperation and maintain peace and tranquility along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
- Bilateral Trade : Economic engagement with China saw a marked increase, with bilateral trade
expanding as both countries pursued economic liberalization.

4. Engagement with Pakistan

Relations with Pakistan were complex and fluctuating during NDA-1, marked by both diplomatic efforts and
military conflict.

- Lahore Declaration : In 1999, Prime Minister Vajpayee undertook a historic bus journey to Lahore,
leading to the Lahore Declaration. This initiative aimed to improve bilateral relations and resolve the
Kashmir issue peacefully.
- Kargil Conflict : Later in 1999, the Kargil War erupted when Pakistani forces infiltrated Indian territory in
Kargil, leading to a brief but intense conflict. India's military response was decisive, and the conflict
underscored the volatility of Indo-Pak relations.
- Agra Summit : In 2001, the Agra Summit was held between Vajpayee and Pakistani President Pervez
Musharraf, aiming to resolve outstanding issues. Although the summit did not result in a breakthrough, it
highlighted India’s willingness to engage in dialogue.

5. Regional Diplomacy and SAARC

The NDA government actively engaged with South Asian countries to enhance regional cooperation.

- SAARC Summit : India continued to play a leading role in the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC), promoting regional integration and economic collaboration.
- Relations with Bangladesh and Sri Lanka : Efforts were made to improve ties with Bangladesh and Sri
Lanka, focusing on economic cooperation and resolving bilateral issues.

6. Economic Diplomacy and Global Integration

Economic reforms and global integration remained a priority.

- Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) : The NDA government continued to liberalize the economy,
encouraging foreign investment and improving the business environment.
- IT and Technology Sector : India’s burgeoning IT sector was promoted as a key driver of economic
growth and global integration.

7. Engagement with the Diaspora

The NDA government placed significant emphasis on engaging with the Indian diaspora.

- Pravasi Bharatiya Divas : The first Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (Non-Resident Indian Day) was celebrated in
2003 to recognize the contributions of the Indian diaspora and strengthen their connection with India.
- Policy Support : Various initiatives were undertaken to facilitate investment and engagement from the
Indian diaspora.

Indian Foreign Policy under UPA (2004-2014)

The United Progressive Alliance (UPA), led by Prime Ministers Dr. Manmohan Singh and UPA chairperson
Sonia Gandhi, governed India from 2004 to 2014. This period was marked by efforts to strengthen
economic ties globally, maintain strategic autonomy, and enhance India’s role on the international stage.
The UPA’s foreign policy focused on balancing relations with major powers, fostering regional cooperation,
and pursuing economic diplomacy.

Key Aspects of Indian Foreign Policy under UPA

1. Strengthening Strategic Partnerships

Indo-US Relations

The UPA government significantly deepened Indo-US relations, culminating in landmark agreements and
strategic dialogues.

- India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement (2008) : This agreement was a cornerstone of UPA's foreign policy. It
allowed India access to nuclear technology and fuel for civilian purposes despite being a non-signatory to
the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). This deal marked the recognition of India as a responsible
nuclear state and significantly strengthened bilateral ties.
- Strategic Dialogues : The UPA engaged in multiple high-level dialogues covering a range of issues from
defense and security to trade and technology. Regular summits between Indian and American leaders
underscored the growing partnership.

Relations with China

The UPA maintained a cautious yet constructive relationship with China, focusing on economic ties while
managing strategic and border issues.

- Economic Engagement : Bilateral trade with China surged during the UPA era, making China one of
India’s largest trading partners.
- Border Management : While the border disputes remained unresolved, both countries engaged in talks
and confidence-building measures to maintain peace along the Line of Actual Control (LAC). Notably, the
Border Defence Cooperation Agreement (BDCA) was signed in 2013 to avoid military face-offs.

Engagement with Russia

India’s traditionally strong ties with Russia continued to be a priority under the UPA.

- Defense Cooperation : Russia remained a key defense partner, with several high-profile defense deals
and joint ventures, including the BrahMos missile project.
- Energy Security : The UPA worked to secure energy supplies from Russia, including nuclear fuel and oil
and gas projects.

2. Regional Diplomacy

South Asia

The UPA’s policy towards South Asia aimed at fostering regional stability and cooperation through bilateral
and multilateral engagements.

- Pakistan : Relations with Pakistan fluctuated. Initiatives like the Composite Dialogue process were
undertaken to address various bilateral issues, including Kashmir, trade, and terrorism. However, the 2008
Mumbai terrorist attacks, traced to Pakistan-based groups, severely strained relations.
- Bangladesh : Relations with Bangladesh improved significantly, highlighted by the 2011 Land Boundary
Agreement which resolved long-standing border disputes.
- Sri Lanka : India played a diplomatic role in Sri Lanka’s internal conflict and post-war reconstruction
efforts. The UPA sought to balance support for Tamil rights with maintaining good relations with the Sri
Lankan government.

SAARC

India continued to lead initiatives within the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC),
promoting regional economic integration and cooperation in areas like security and disaster management.

3. Economic Diplomacy and Global Integration

Trade and Investment

The UPA government prioritized economic diplomacy to integrate India more fully into the global economy.

- ASEAN and East Asia : Building on the Look East Policy, the UPA deepened ties with ASEAN countries.
India signed Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with ASEAN and engaged in regional forums like the East Asia
Summit (EAS).
- European Union : Efforts were made to enhance trade and investment relations with the EU, though a
comprehensive trade agreement remained elusive.
- BRICS : India became an active member of BRICS, collaborating with Brazil, Russia, China, and South
Africa on economic, political, and security issues. BRICS summits facilitated discussions on reforming
global financial institutions and increasing South-South cooperation.

4. Energy Security and Climate Change

The UPA era saw significant efforts to address energy security and environmental sustainability.

- Nuclear Energy : The India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement enabled India to secure nuclear fuel and
technology from various countries, enhancing energy security.
- Renewable Energy : India pursued renewable energy projects and actively participated in global climate
change negotiations. The UPA government pushed for equitable and sustainable development as part of
the global climate agenda.

5. Diaspora Engagement

Engaging with the Indian diaspora remained a priority for the UPA.

- Pravasi Bharatiya Divas : Continued celebration of Pravasi Bharatiya Divas to recognize the
contributions of the Indian diaspora and strengthen their connections with India.
- Policy Support : Initiatives to facilitate diaspora investments and involvement in India's development,
including the issuance of Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) cards.

Indian Foreign Policy under NDA-2 (2014-2019)

The second tenure of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi,
witnessed a proactive and assertive approach to Indian foreign policy. Modi’s leadership emphasized
enhancing India’s global standing, promoting economic diplomacy, and strengthening strategic
partnerships. This period was marked by initiatives aimed at projecting India as a major player on the world
stage and advancing its interests in various domains.

Key Aspects of Indian Foreign Policy under NDA-2

1. Neighborhood First Policy

The NDA-2 government prioritized strengthening relations with neighboring countries through the
"Neighborhood First" policy.

- Focus on South Asia : Efforts were made to deepen economic ties and enhance connectivity with South
Asian countries through initiatives such as the "Act East" policy, which aimed to promote economic
integration and people-to-people exchanges.
- Initiatives with Bangladesh and Nepal : Landmark agreements were signed with Bangladesh, including
the Land Boundary Agreement and the Teesta River water-sharing agreement. Similarly, efforts were made
to address concerns and strengthen ties with Nepal.

2. Act East Policy

Building on the Look East Policy, the NDA-2 government articulated the Act East Policy, aimed at
deepening engagement with East and Southeast Asia.

- Economic Partnerships : Emphasis was placed on expanding economic and trade relations with ASEAN
countries and East Asian nations through trade agreements and infrastructure projects.
- Strategic Partnerships : The Act East Policy also focused on enhancing strategic cooperation,
particularly in areas like defense and maritime security.

3. Strategic Partnerships and Diplomacy

The NDA-2 government pursued a proactive strategy to strengthen strategic partnerships and enhance
India's role in global affairs.
- US-India Relations : Indo-US relations witnessed significant progress, with the two countries deepening
cooperation in defense, counterterrorism, and economic matters. High-level visits and dialogues
underscored the growing partnership between the world's oldest and largest democracies.
- Russia and China Relations : While maintaining traditional ties with Russia, efforts were made to
enhance cooperation with China, particularly in economic and trade domains. The NDA-2 government
engaged with both countries to manage strategic differences and explore areas of mutual interest.

4. Economic Diplomacy and Global Integration

Economic diplomacy remained a key pillar of Indian foreign policy under the NDA-2 government.

- Make in India Initiative : The Make in India campaign aimed to boost domestic manufacturing and attract
foreign investment by promoting India as a global manufacturing hub.
- Global Investment Summits : India organized global investment summits to showcase investment
opportunities and attract foreign capital in key sectors such as infrastructure, renewable energy, and
technology.
- Membership in International Organizations : India actively sought membership in international
organizations and groups to advance its economic interests and enhance its global influence.

5. Security and Defense Cooperation

The NDA-2 government focused on enhancing security and defense cooperation with key partners to
address regional and global security challenges.

- Counterterrorism Cooperation : India strengthened counterterrorism cooperation with various countries,

including the US, to combat the threat of terrorism and extremism.
- Maritime Security : Efforts were made to enhance maritime security cooperation in the Indian Ocean
region, including joint patrols, exercises, and capacity-building initiatives.

6. Multilateral Engagement and Global Issues

India actively engaged in multilateral forums and global issues under the NDA-2 government.

- Climate Change : India participated in global climate change negotiations and advocated for a balanced
and equitable approach to addressing climate change.
- Global Health Initiatives : India played an active role in global health initiatives, including efforts to
combat diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria.
- United Nations : India continued to engage actively in the United Nations and called for reforms to make
the organization more representative and responsive to global challenges.