CHAPTER EIGHT: CONTRIBUTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN MATHEMATICIANS IN ARITHMETIC BRAHMAGUPTA, ‘Brahmagupla wrote 3 treatises - (1) Brakmasphuta-Sidhdanta (2) Khand-Khaddak (3) Uttar- Khand khaddak, He was the fist mathematician who classified mathematics as Arithmetic and Bijaganit (Algebra) Contribution of Brahmagupta in arithmetic Brahmasphuta-Sidhdanta is the earliest known text to treat zero as 4 number in its own, rightather than as simply a place holder value digit in representing another number as ‘was done by "Babylonian" or as a symbol for a lack of quanlity as was done by "Ptolemy" and the "Romans". Hence Brahmagupta is considered the fist to formulate the concept of zero as number. He gave rules of using zero with negative and positive ‘numbers. His rules for arithmetic on negative / positivenumbers and zero are quite close to modem understanding except that in modem mathematics division by zero is left undefined. ‘There are 20 operations like addition; subtraction etc, in mathematics was his postulate. He proved that addition & subtraction as well as multiplication & division are inverse ‘operations. He gives rule facilitating she computation of square, square-root, cube & ccube-root of an integer. He then gives rule for dealing with five types of combination of fractions, ale + ble, ale *bid, a/l + bid, ale +bid *ale= [a (4+b))/ ed and ale - bid = [a(¢-b)Ved He discovered formula to compute sum ofthe squares & cubes of fist nn smumbers Sum of squares of firs'n’ natural numbers = [n (a-1)Qn+1)V6 Sum oF cubes of first 'n' natural numbers = [n(n 1)/2)° Formula for computing square ofany number 28 QCYIOCHY) + 13?= (13.2\13+2)4 1sis+4 169 140(CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE: CONTRIBUTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN MATHEMATICIANS IN GEOMETRY BRAHMAGUPTA Brahmagupta wrote 3 treatises - (1) Brahrmasphuta-Sidhdanta (2) Khand-Khaddak (3) ‘Unar- Khand khaddak. Ie was the frst mathematician who classified mathematics as Arithmetic and Bijaganit (Algebra). Contribution of Brahmagupta in geometry ‘Brahmagupta’s formula for computing area of cyclic quadrilateral Leta, b,c, dare length ofeyelic quadrilateral sides. Approximate area of eyelic quadrilateral = [(a*<)/2* (btah2} S — Somi-perimetsr= (ated) 2 Exact area of eyclic quadrilateral = Way SH) SO SD) ‘One theorem of Brakmagupta states that the base increased or decreased by the difference between the squares of the sides divided by the base and again divided by ‘two, gives the lengths of two true segments, Length oftwo true segments ~ 1/2[b (3%) Where base of triangle a &e~ sides of triangle He further gives a theorem on rational triangles A triangle with rational sides a,b, € and rational area is of form 8= U2{(uiv) +v), b= VPI lush) +], © = V2[s(u/v)-v} + {(un/w)-w}] for some rational numbers u, v & w. 309fa cyclic quadrilateral is orthodiagonal (that it has perpendicular diagonals) then the perpendicular to a side from the point of intersection of diggonals always bisects the ‘opposite side, Bp L Acer L BC=1Ar- [FD] To prove AF = FD FAM ‘BM _ (Inscribed angles that intercept the same are ofa circle) FMA=CME _ (opposite angles) FMD=BME (opposite angles) FAM = FMA. APMA is an isosceles triangle AF. M ‘Similarly DME = BCM = BME = FDM AMF isan isoscotes tangle PM=ED From (1) & (2) APSFD He found accurate value of as IO He gives construction of various figures with arbitrary sides. He essentially ‘manipulated right angles to produce isosceles triangles, scelene triangles, rectangles, isosceles trapezoids with three equal sides and a selene eyelic quadrilateral 310“He proved that cyclic quadrilateral is formed by taking two right angle triangles (TS! 40 51° 68! = 7225 =85%) NILKANTH SOMAYAJI “Tantra-Sangraha” is Nilkanth Somayaji's important treatise out of his 10 treatises. He also presented commentary on ‘Aryabhat's (SMcentury) work named as " aryabhatiya-Bhashya! theorems of Aryabhat (5® century) & presented in simplified manner, He made minor correctionsalterations in many formulae & Contribution of Nilkanth Somavaji in geometry The speciality of "Tantra-Sangraha’ is that all formulae are derived from spherical ‘geometry. He devised astro-science triangle's three points with Sun, North Pole & Zenith forthe proof of his theorems. Suppose 3 sides & 3 angles of such triangle are a,b, ¢ & A, B, C respectively then his theorems ar Cos a= 00s btcos c ~ sin btsin eteos A Sine rule = sn alsin A= sinb/ sin B= sin e/sin © [ilkanth Somaya’ important formula tao X=X -XIB-+XIS- NIT. FX =1 is assumed thn for infinite series can be derived eg An 1 US41S-177+ In 1670 Labaneitz. & Gregory discovered formula tan (I) = ap /4 but Nilkanth Somayaji invented formula tan" (1) = /4 and proved it 200years prior to them. suNILKANTH SOMAYAJI rantra-Sangraha” is Nilkanth Somayaji's important treatise out of his 10 treatises. He also presented commentary on 'Aryabhat’s (S*century) work named as "Aryabhatiya- Bhashya", He made minor corrections/alterations in many formulae & theorems of Aryabhat (S! century) & presented in simplified manner. He also wrote ““Sidhdantadarpan” (Laws of astronomy), Golasara (Spherical astronomy) and ‘Chandrachhaya Ganitam (Calculation of the time during night from a measurement of the shadow cast by the Moon). ontribution of Nilkanth Somavail in algebra He gave excellent approximation of (11) as (104348 #33 215) = 3.14159265392 ‘which is correct upto ‘9° decimal places. He explicitly proved that itis impossible to express the value of (IT) as the ratio of to inte ers, He stated tha itis impossible to ‘measure the circumference and the diameter by same unit. Ancient Indians knew the inationality of (11) since sulbsutra period. He was the first who explained it in exact terms of moder mathematics, Johann Heinrich Lambert, a Swiss mathematician rediscovered the same in 1761 AD. Nilkanth Somayaji's infinite series for (TT /4) has some special features which were not considered by Leibniz. He gave some rational approximations for error correction on taking only the frst ‘n’ terms of series. TL y= 1-13) + (5) + 9) I + £(n2F+ 1 wee ‘Thus the transformed series is as follows (ge sean +4 ; 7 And (Tq) = 9 +48) 481-48 493+ 489 405 (479447 He also discussed the Madhav's infinite series of tigonometrc Functions Sin x= x= (8/3 + (8/51) —607/7) + O19 = Cos x= 1 = (F/ 21) + (xt AD) (61) + (88D) = Tan! x=x~ (09/3) + (8/5) (07/7) + (0/9) 232He gave formula for computation of the length ofa smaller circular arc ‘an terms of chord ‘e* (ya = Rsine and height‘ (Sara ~ Rversine). Nikantha’s formula in ‘modem notations VOC la & ‘e applied the summation of an infinite convergent series in derivation of the above. approximation formula, He knew that aa infinite convergent series has a finite sum. In this context be also explained how to sum the following infinite geometric series (aia) (ay + 13) «ay ‘He presented results as (113) = (1/4) + (4/4*3)), (1243) = (1/44) + (148493) and 30 on Thus general result is (=) 0189+ aiyy= 090) He discovered some formulae as belo Er=[a(atny2 Ee= fminshannys E13 = (meV Proof of above formulae are availabe in his commentary "Atyabhatiya-Bhashya" BHASKARACHARYA(12thcentury) He has been called greatest mathematician of medieval India. His main work "Sighdant-Shiromani" is divided in four parts called Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grabaganita and Goladhyay which are also sometimes considered four independent works. Contribution of Bhaskaracharya (I2thcentury) in Algebra In Litavati, solutions of quadratic, cubic and quartic indeterminate equations ate explained, Solutions of indeterminate quadratic equations of type ax? + b= y2, Integer solutions of linear and quadratic indeterminate equations (Kuttaka) 233SHRINIVAS RAMANUJAN Shrinivas Ramanujan was a celebrated Indian mathematician. Subjects of his research ‘were number theory, theory of partitions, arithmetical functions and hyper geometric series. Ilis last diary is called as "Lost Note book” in which 600 theorems are incorporated. Efforts are made still today to prove these theorems. Every number has individual identity was his concept, Hardy-Ramanujan-Littlewoodscirle method in number theory. Roger-Ramanujan's identities in partition of numbers. Work on continued fractions, partial sums and products of hyper geometric series Properties of number 1729 invented by him are I= P HP =10+9 ang -49713"19 3729" 7913*19"91"133"247 ane’ rghigtesta3t247t1729 29 16 8 108 rag -184 3 ah asta ano! ingeareagten rng=19+9n 1729 = 865? - 864? 2-> (9-7-2463) (14742-9)— -(5 4203) 2—> [K(9-7)+2}+1) 3 9+2-7-3) Am [2 1)49-7-* (9 2)- x7) Se (4142-7) [(7 x 2)-(1 x9] a26 (7 x 2)-944) 7» (9 47-1-2) Blvd x 147-2) 9 ((9+7) +2} 411» (V9 4741-2) 10-» [(9 x 2)-7 1] 1—> (vO +7+2-1) 12 [19 x 2)-7 + > (V9 +742) x 1 13> (9+ 7-2-1)» (VO 474241) 14> [(V9 x 2)4741) 15> (9+741-2) 16» [(7 x 2)+ V9 -1] 27> (94742-1) 18 [(9 +7) + (2 x1)]—» (V9 x 7)-2-1] 19 (9474242) 20+ [V9 x 7)+1-2) Di (94741424) 22> [(V9 x 7) 42-1] 23+ [((9- 1) x 2}+7]> (+7222) 24» [U7 2) 49.44] (9 2) 47-1] 25—> {(7 1) 4(9 x 2)Hm [(1+7) x2}+ 9} > (94742841) 26> [(9 « 24741)27 (9+) x 2}+7) 28» [9 x 2-7-1] 29+ ((°-7)-2-4] 30m [((9- 77) x 1}- 21» [09 x 27)-7 +1)» [CV 2) x 7421 31> [((947) 2)-1]-® [92-79 41-2] 32» [(9+7) «2 x4] 33> [{{947) 2}+ A] H(941) x24) -71 (92-7) +2-4] 34 [((142) x9} +71 (22-2) x9} 47) 35> [((9¥1) +2} «7] 36> (147) +2) x9] 37—> IM(7 x2) +9) x1] 38> M7 x22) +9} 41] 39 (F-F)4P- 1] 40> (9-7) +24) 1] 41> (9-7) 42°41] 42> [9 x2)+7-1] 43> (P42+1-9) (9 x21) +71 24> ((9 «2)47 44] 45> (4241-9) 46 —> [7 x2')-9-1] 47> (9+ 1) x2} 47] [(7?+2')-9-1) 48» [(7 «24-9 43] 49+ (7-2) 49-1] 14850» {M72} +9) x a} sie (7-2 +940) 52> [(2°x7)- V9 -1] sae (749-2-1) 54 (9 x7)-2°-1] 55> (7+ 9-2-1) HU8 x7)-29) <4} 56> [9 «7-244 1] 57 [(9°-29)-7-1] 5a (9? -7hx 4) 59 —rl(92-24)-7 +1] 60> {(9 x7}-2-1 61> (9 «7)-2} x1)—> (72494243) 62» [9 x7) 41-2] 63> [9?-7) x2}-1] 64> (9-7) x2 x 1 65> HI947) x27 + Aw (9? = 7) x2} +1 65—> [(9 x7} +142] 67> [((9* 7)42} «AP 2 +941-7) 68> [9+ 1) x7}-2w (2 «9) 47°44) 69> (9-2?-7-1) FOP [{(9?- 2") -7) % Aw (7 +1) x9} 2}—w [(9 x7) +21) TA Iil@ 7) <2} +27» (9247-2) 72 [M(9-+1) x7} 421 245BH (P4244 9-1) (FP 41-9) 74> [(7 +1) x 9}+2] 75> (74244941) 76> (9 +2) «7}-4] 77> (9 42) «7 Ew (4241-7) 78> [9+ 2) x 7}+1] 79 (2849474) 80> [(9 x7) +241 BI (2494741) 82> [(98+2-7) x 4} 83> (9-27-147) 84> [(9 4241) x A> [I9"-27 +7) x4] 85> 924 7-2-1) 86> [98+ 7-2) x] 87> (9° 4741-2) 88 [V9 «24)-7-1] BOP (74249-7422) 90—» [(9°+7 +2) x1] sie 474241) 92» (1984742) x1] 93» (94742741) 94> ((2 x7) +9%-4] 95—> (97 429+ 7-1) 14696—> [2 x7) +9? +1] 97> [I(1+ 7) 2] +97] (97+ 29+ 741) 98+ (( V9 x2) +7? +4) 99> [(7 +24) x9 x1] 100» ((7?2) + 9-1) 11729 is divisible by prime numbers 7, 13 & 19. The difference between 13 & 7 as well {35 19 & 13 is same [.e, 6. When 1729 is divided by 19 (divisor), quotient obtained is, 91, 19 & 92 are two numbers which are obtained by interchanging their digits. ‘ence 1729 is called as Ramanujan number in his honour and memory. He invented many best formulae E.g, 184025*+ 1119810°=189209"~ 1119666" Formation of magic squares and rectangles was his hobby. He deriveda method for formation of magic squares and rectangles. He could caleulate the value of V2 and ‘upto anynumber of decimal places. ARYABHAT (5° century) Aryabhat wrote his famous treatise “Aryabhatiya”. "Aryabhatiya” is the reference twoatise like Grock mathematician Euclid’s teatise "Elements of mathematics ‘Maximum description in least words is the specialty of his "Aryabbatiya’ Contribution of Arvabhat (5* century) in arithmetic He invented a notation system consisting of alphabet numerals. Digits were denoted by alphabet numerals e.g: = 1, == 2 Devnagari script contains varga and avarga leters, 1-25 are denoted by first 25 varga letters. He assigned numerical values 40 33 consonants of Devnagari script to represent 1,2, 3, 25,40, $0, 00, In only one Sanskrit verse he had explained his notation system and itis known as "o-w-z-5-0" script ‘He was familiar with place value system as well as numeral symbols and sign for zero His caleulation of square root & cube root would not have been feasible without the Knowledge of place value system & zero. He invented rules for calculating square, square-root, cube, cube-root of a number along with their explanation. He invented for a7SWAMI BHARATI KRISHANA TIRTH (1884 1960) PIONEER OF VEDIC MATHEMATICS)1 mentioned hercin da not appear in the hitherto known Parid- ‘own merits and is ‘world sn here by the author stands on presented as such to the mater We are to Preface by Swiml Suikarickrya that he contemplated to cover all the different branches of mathe-(1 y temiat ite 9 ond getinee iit Tet etyiiae bane yes seria th ratios Meds 3) 80s oe emcasrests tox? F180-H46x—10 (ix) places itself before our eyes and seems to stare ws in the face! ba perform hundreds of such transpostion-opeations inC1) 1 the pclae acy Bre hin and sy sctrontsatala2a; and the whole process should be a short, and_ simple mental process ‘Second Geral Type (2) The above is the commonest kind (of transpositions) ‘The second common type és one in which each side (the [Link]. and the RIES) contains two Binomial factors, In genoral terms let (x-ba) (x-+b)=(x-be) (td). ‘The usual method is o work oct the two multiplications and do the ys and say — (ta fetbia(- vera) eachxiah extientdxted oxox—teed—ah x(e4b—e—d}=el—ab ) (<9 eT=(49) (4) x gt () (2) e300 aaa (8) (7) fx =(2—9) (2-29) : 0 (et) emt fH) ap MM at 8 3 (0) 499 FFB) ET) ay BC aS ee (1) (41) Ita 9) (RAR) os ee EIS = _ So 11) This gives rise to a general corollary to the effect if ed—ab=0 ie. if ed=ab ie, if the product of the absolute terms be the same on both the sides, the numerator becomes Third General Type ‘The third type is one whirh may be put into the gene menaly as 2 Sine the terms inv left side and be gathered purpose must inv (00. fom-+to—and conversely; and fiom X into + and conversely) Fourth General Type The fouth ype i af the form: gE, 0 LOS, the crss— mul tear over, He ge —Mb—OA Hig is simple enonigh and casy enough fir mtn Le ate; and it should be astiniated and y to any case before ws ns and jon ofthis process may, in lv court, Pirie ao cta)+pirta) (sl) 9 (eta) GH) (te)(108) +e} bala baleta) cal} aime aap (baa) ea FOOT Rut if my ‘These SPECIAL types of equations, we now go on to, in the next few chapters (Cuarren X11 ray, we can straightaway Sty: O(x-F Secon Me ‘The word Samuc the independent Here 7X93 X21 ha AND Apruicarion its second meaning, the Ths, 4-244) =(e4 Therefore roe aTaino Measine ano AvrLicstioN idly mans the sum af the Denonsinators of ors fnotons having the sar ricalymumerator. TH This is axiomatic to0 ant needs no elaboration In this sens, it is ws in ve the sum of the momerators and the sum of the uinator oe tho raime, then That sum—zero, thod, But the “Sinyam Simyo- inasmuch as NyPNy=te-$16 ind Dy$D,=8x 410. Removing for, we have dx-f8 of bath sides here too. lons of Ny by Dy and ‘are necessary (inthe Vedic No laborious rosea 1Nq by Dy and transpositions et method), [At sight, we can at one say 4x4480 and be done with it Form Maavnse aso Avriicsti0s (for Quadratic) total) of the word ays Samuccaye’, there is 4 fiNh Kindo opp this Stra. “And this has 10 do with Q\ None need however, go into a panic over this. I is as simple and as easy asthe fourth application : and even an understand and readily apply this Sitra in as explained how. In the two instances given above, it will be obverved thatthe rossrutiplicatons ofthe eoefcents of x gives us the same coeticient for x8. In the fist case, we had 4x¥ on both sider; and in t was 6x? on both sides. ‘The two canceling out, we had simple equations to deal with 1 coocints of 38 are i that we have a are otber cases where For, the same Sitea applies mn) here too and equation Jet us take @ concrete example and suppose we have 10 Wve the equation S24 S48 solve the equation yas (We note that Xy¢Np=BH10 and DD, is also fre use the method descbed in jon given above and equate Be H10 to zero and say: x= —5/4.and the Matriculation examiners everywhere would seem to have made eof practice to include one ion-papers ! ‘we are told fo transpose to o€ the ay havea plus term and a Here, we sould transpose the mine, 40 chat al 4 terms ate pur ones Vet ee ey Tee tas process here is very casy and can ) 9 =a 1 Tee ee (Ce a A 1 Lo EP FT pend ape Ht)cn ’ Note:—If the last two examples (with so many literal coeTiclns involved) were 10 be done according 10 the current svstem, the labo is solved ut sight We ao tr en of dps m () 84 x8 my et its Et ES By dividing the Numerators out by the Denominator, wwe have 1 wate, Cancelling out the two ones from both sides, we have the Equation Ufo us in its undisguisod shape and can at once say, ka Now this process of division can be mentally performed ig the independent term of the denomi sign changed) to the Numerator, we et | as the and, a5 Dy}Dy=DytDy, ve fy the case before us as “coming. compl etion of the “Sangam Sunaccaye formula vo Bx-T=0 2 = Th Secondy, by Pardvortye, Zee yaa ‘We transpse the minus terms and fi he TESTS have been satisfactorily passed. (All this argumentation ean. of course, be done mentally). So, we say: —8=0 o x=4 was $MM oo a ice HSE: the Numer DytD=Dy+D.=2x—9=0 (#) Seo8 $8 _ 2-0 | oe zt ao Here, $4+4=9+$ ; and the other 2 testsareal right on =6 ets 4 At ge, Bema +350 See oe ‘AIL the TESTS are found satisfactorily passe, fMH=0 vx=7 All the TESTS are allright -. 2-90 () sgsea tie xtioetn | xtax—20 eer toe ate = iher by simple division or by simple futorsationcm) as) ‘Tatoxen Drsoortsss 2 tet - Aa BT wee 7 ea 7 aT eee at aera sti} are (We transpose (ment FH=HHE So, we 6 ye Le 6 axe2 “oe $3 “oan” Sopa? lxtee0 «x3 58 Even here, after the prel boing equal t0 8-48, ae tt wpe + tera ete te owe cen edly agi the type and ty = net0 ce= i By citer method, or+8m0 xa =! (ach one A413 toa ris Sed “HS axo10 Here tat YES. By smple di os fllows— yee ate tener ta suatantce of crtinty Here EBI-HE YRS by. CROSS malt By cither method, 645-20, x==2 by D, and f N, byD, proper shape, 12x dca 7S “Ry cithe method, Ox}#=0 9, x=cus) ‘Foxtasn [Link] oF ri: Fort. now under discussion is, however, appl ‘of eis too and says— (-8)}4(x-9)aax—12. Taking away the numerical we have 56. And x6 i the frtor under the cube on RHS, 2 x68 xa The lgeraial avo of it i6 a9 follows (2542-20) 2a 2° —6eth | 12a? ee x8 —oxth 4.12ub bt S2fe'aa—ah {Sua faxbHf Bxab -a-2etD—Babt— 9) 9 —oxhu— 2b a? Leth Det 2a — Bath — Bab? 2? (Cancelling out the common terns from both sides, we have taxa 120b 88 8—Gent Ho? 2 Hea — 209 tat —aabt— bt Bea p8xd#-=12sah 62 Gath Seb! > thereof (by the uppli- ation of this formula to examples of this type). ions may be taken =~ 6) (149° x91) BG — 100) ‘The very prospect of the squaring. eubing et. of these numbers must appal the student. But, by the present Sitre This ieatll more eric, Rie ay: x= (etatb-emdoethy ofthe fi dear a 4bca)] (twice over), swell next say — (1699-19052 2100 F189 a8 HIG fot(Cus y Acoording to the Vedie formula, howevr, we do not eros multiply the binomial factors and so on but simply obseme FD,® and Ne+Dy ate both 2x }8 and. 3x48-=0 xt (eptayh che (cearad) Tra t3d By the usual process of erou-mitptiation, (x +a +Rd)x pa-d)=(x+a)(a+a+ 2d) (By expansion of both sides) a4 jx%(4a--0d) a4? 1804-41244) 4 (418A 28a rod) (ot tab DMEF 12a dtmet bel) FLA? id F125 (bat 1A Fad) ete, te (Cateelingconmon terms out), we have — 0 10nd 28a) a ‘Pe--2ad? 424-0 ing deat), We have 4} 244+24.0 v. xon-—4(20430) te tat N, HD, (underthe cubes) Dy and Dy, Binomial I Progression. should be ia Ari (within te cubes) Taboos Tatwuer). The Va that (aa)HHE—B) and BB) H(eaED) both total tp to Beat x-Ha—b) the same. ‘he Mist example worked out above, by Cross ny we have (x+ Ti+ 9) the CrossADDITION of these factors gives us 4-418 as the total on both sides; and this tallies withthe value x= —4 (obtained above). ‘In the second example :— (Fat) (tet d) = (ctaycbat tl ‘And here t00, Cross-ADDITION gives us 4x-+40 1.608 the total ‘on both sides, And this too gives us the same snswer as befor,ant rss-ADDITION Process gives us 4x—24 a8 the total on both sles. And we get the same answer as before the fourth case, a have (eta $Bb)(e—a)P xB DH DY. ‘And erose-ADDITIO} both sides and, thee into the eror of ring that thisis an addtional TEST (or auicent con The student should nt, however, f i the applieation of the farmula, This really eomas corollay-consoquemse of the AP, relationship between Binomial factor. But it is nota sufieint condi forthe vient or this purpose An instanes in pol (ebay) x2 (chs) +8 Here, Cros ADDITION gives 4-419 a8 th find = ELT) 10544275 bg50—at 7s Host 2484216 Gc4432x4I6—0, whichis a Quadratic equation (with the =i V8 Roots #58 an not «simple equation at cm) (2) In theca of nother spacial typeof semingBiguaratice™ ‘There is also another special type of sceming “Bigua je~"Wwhich are really simple equations of the first degree the “Sango Somuccaye"” Satea is applicable to and which we now go en to. (This section may. however, be held cover foe a Tater reading), AaN) (49) _ (46) (e410) (eR) (HH) > Gea) OTT On (x41) (CEO (R48) (24-1) = (2) 4) (8) (10) We frst note that cr0ss-ADDITION gives us the same us the assurance the xtand the xt coefficients will cancel out, Rut what about the x*coefficients For them to0 to vanish, itis necessary that the sum of the products of the independent terms taken «wo at a time should be the same on both the sides. And thisis the case when i faba) (x+B) (We) (24d) (xe) (x40) (xt) (eB), we have not merely atb-be-pdme-tftg-th but aso (wo other ‘conditions Fulfilled > the sum of any 2 binomials on the one side is to the sum of some to binomials onthe other sb-ted on the Teft—eF+eh on the right these In the exampe actually now before us, we find (eh4): Cob ech 1) Ge payHOeEO): GEE H8) = (a) E410): (40) (47) = (x0) L410); ad (49) (24.7) = (24-2)4(0-10) (84460) are both equ nder the range of this Similar isthe ease $2) (48) (1) (24-7) (it) (18)cm) oe (RMI EED EEN (FIED (1) G49) (et); and (i) By cxomvaddition, the total on both sides is 4x-+1 {Tho sum of ech pair of Binomils on the one side i ‘equal tothe sam of some pair thereof on the other : and ) ab fede ie. -442-—=—1 F21 (20) ies; and 4-H10-=0 x= 2p Such however is mi the ese wi (8) (= 6) (6610649) (8) (C8) HS Here, we observe:— on both siden is ax; «of 2air of Biomials (on the two sides) ‘This equation is therefore a quadratic (and not within the eoope of the present Sita), The Algetraical Explanation (for this type of equations) ($b) (soho) (HD (x8) The d tbtetdmebttgth: ) The sum of aay pair of binomials on the one side rmaste the sameas the sum or some pate a binomiais fon the other. Suppose that atb=e-Hf; and cmd +h) ibseod nef gh (otb-b-+d) +2 (ab-ac-tad-tbe thd bod) (he -babd-+aed-+hed) +-abod Stet (Hee th) txt (of beg toh bie Hih-t gh) alle tefl gh Fgh) 4efgh Cs) Ine x" and s’cancel ext and, owing the x coefcens are the same on both sides; and therefore they too canst out. And thre is no quadratic (eft fe us to solve herein) Proof: The x° coefficients are =— LHS. ab-4ac-ad-4ebd-bed ROWS et jeg fg bah i, (ab-be)-+ale-hd) Ue4-d)ab red +0-+b¥e-+8) and (beh bolt Fe eho He) But (ab Fed)ehhghy; and arbaes ts and eed neh ‘he LHS =the RILS.; and x vanishes! FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE SOTRA ‘begining ofthis very chapter, it was noted that if 9 function (eentaining the unknown x, ¥ ete,)oceurs as a ‘common factor i sm on both sides (or onthe L. (with zero onthe RH S.)that function can be removed therefron and equated to Zero, We now proceed to deal with certain types of cases which do not seem to be of this kind but axe really 50. All hat eave to do isto rearrange the terms in sk the masked erms,sotosayand make ‘te postion transparently clear on the surface. For example— () cto xt pete bye ete arb ‘Taking —Sover fromthe RS. t the # terms there, we have’ LHS. distributing ‘This whole working can be done, at sight ie. mentally, Qn prihyris cm fai aoe bre Teta ath naa ae