Industrial and Organizational
Psychology: Research and Practice
Theories of Employee Motivation
Copyright Paul E. Spector, All rights reserved, 2021.
Learning Objectives
• Define motivation.
• List the major work motivation theories that
are discussed in this chapter.
• Describe how each of the major work
motivation theories explains work behavior.
• Compare and contrast the major work
motivation theories.
What Is Motivation?
• Internal state that induces people to engage in particular
behaviors
• Explains why people do what they do
• I-O theories focus largely on job performance
• Three aspects of motivation
– Direction: What should I do?
– Intensity: How hard should I try?
– Persistence: How long should I keep going?
Focus of Motivation
• Theories deal with different parts of motivation
• Distal
– Processes far removed from the actual behavior
– A general need such as need for autonomy
• Proximal
– Processes close to the actual behavior
– A goal such as completing an I-O course
The Theories
• Need Hierarchy
• Self-determination
• Expectancy
• Self-efficacy
• Justice
• Goal-setting
• Cognitive control
• Action
Need Theories
• Motivation determined by people’s needs and
desires
– Biological needs: Food and thirst
– Psychological needs: Autonomy and companionship
• Distal theory
– Focus on abstract needs rather than specific behavior
– Cannot predict how people choose to meet needs
Need Hierarchy Theory
• Abraham Maslow
• Behavior determined by five needs in order
– Physiological
– Safety
– Love
– Esteem
– Self‑actualization
• At particular time lowest need take priority
• People do not always follow the hierarchy
• Focused attention on needs and that people can
vary on them
Self-determination Theory
• Edward Deci and Richard Ryan
• Distinguished types of motivation
– Intrinsic: engage in activities for own satisfaction
– Extrinsic: engage in activities for external reward
• Three human needs
– Autonomy: Control over the environment
– Competence: Feel able to accomplish goals and tasks
– Relatedness: Develop positive social connections
• Intrinsic motivation enhanced by situations that
allow for need satisfaction
Gamification and Motivation
• Gamification used to enhance motivation
– Achievements: Recognition for success
– Badges: Symbol of achievement
– Leaderboard: Public recognition
– Levels: Ranks that reflect achievements
• Provides positive feedback
– Enhances competency need
Expectancy Theory
• Victor Vroom
• Predicts motivation not performance
– Expectancy: self-confidence person can perform a
behavior
– Instrumentality: perception that behavior will result in
reward
– Valence: value of rewards to the person
Force = Expectancy x Σ(Valence x Instrumentality)
• “Multiplicative” implies all factors must be high
Validity of Expectancy Theory
• Meta-analysis find support (Van Eerde)
• Stronger support
– Effort
– Preference
• Weaker support
– Job performance
– Choice
Self-Efficacy
• Albert Bandura
• Self-confidence increases motivation
• Differs from Expectancy Theory
– Self confidence in domain rather than specific task
• Research supportive inside and outside workplace
• Galatea Effect – personal self-fulfilling prophesy
– Study showing effects on seasickness (Eden & Zuk, 1995)
• Training session during which some navy cadets were told they were
unlikely to get sick at sea
• Less sickness & better performance
Justice Theories: Equity
• John Stacey Adams
• People are motivated to achieve fairness
• Balance between inputs & outcomes
– Compare their perceived ratio (outcomes/inputs) to
those around them
– It is the comparison to others that causes perception of
imbalance
• Overpayment Increase effort
• Underpayment Decreased effort, turnover
• Support for underpayment effects, but not overpayment
Justice Theories: Fairness
• Russell Cropanzano
• Distributive justice: Fairness in distribution of rewards
• Procedural justice: Fairness in methods of distribution of
rewards
• Fairness theory does not assume injustice perceptions
come from social comparisons
• Justice relates to job performance, job satisfaction, and
intention to quit
• Justice climate: Shared perception of fair treatment at
work
Goal Setting Theory
• Edwin Locke
• Goals direct and focus behavior
• Factors for effective goal setting
– Goal commitment
– Feedback
– Goal difficulty
– Goal specificity
• Research supportive, but has limitations
– Complex jobs and multiple goals not as effective
– Group goals work better with work groups
– Can become overly focused on goals
Goal Orientation
• Personality variable
• Focus of personal goal
• Learning orientation
– Focus on enhancing knowledge and skill
• Performance orientation
– Focus on good performance on current tasks
• Situation determines which is better
Control Theory
• Howard Klein
• Role of feedback in goal striving
• Focuses on regulation of performance
toward goal
• Differs from goal setting theory because
insufficient progress leads to:
– Goal modification
– Revised strategies for goal attainment
Control Theory
Action Theory
• Winfried Hacker
• German comprehensive theory of work behavior
• Major focus is on goal oriented or intentional
behaviors (called actions)
• Actions result from conscious intentions to
accomplish something
• Process linking goals to behavior, and how goals
and behavior are regulated
• Research supports some of its predictions
– High performers understand a problem quickly and
make better use of feedback
Action-State Orientation
• People differ in action-state orientation
• Action orientation
– Able to direct efforts to achieve goals
• State orientation
– Breakdown in goal striving efforts
• Have trouble starting
• Become distracted
• Bog down in details and give up easily
Action Sequence
Summary of Motivation Theories
Theory Theorist Basis For Motivation
Need Hierarchy Maslow Five levels of unfulfilled needs
Self-determination Ryan/Deci Fulfillment of 3 needs intrinsically motivating
Expectancy Vroom Expectations for desired outcomes and valences of
those outcomes
Justice-Equity Adams Perceived unfairness of rewards in relation to
inputs
Fairness Theory Cropanzano Fairness with which rewards are distributed and
procedures for distribution.
Self-Efficacy Bandura Feelings of competence
Goal Setting Locke Individual goals if accepted
Control Theory Klein Feedback toward goals
Action Theory Hacker Goals leading to plans leading to actions, modified
by feedback
Key Terms
• Motivation • Equity theory
• • Outcomes
Distal motivation theories
• Inputs
• Proximal motivation theories
• Fairness theory
• Need hierarchy theory • Distributive justice
• Self-determination theory • Procedural justice
• Extrinsic motivation • Justice climate
• Intrinsic motivation • Goal-setting theory
• Goal orientation
• Expectancy theory
• Learning orientation
• Force • Performance orientation
• Expectancy • Control theory
• Valence • Action theory
• Instrumentality • Action process
• Action vs. state orientation
• Self-efficacy theory
• Self-efficacy
• Galatea effect