SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire :

Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant

Marianne Poumay, juillet 2005

Qu’il soit face à un groupe restreint ou à un grand groupe d’étudiants, l’enseignant du supérieur
qui souhaite poursuivre une formation en pédagogie est souvent mu par sa prise de conscience de
problèmes rencontrés par ses étudiants. C’est un excellent enseignant1, il fait déjà partie de
cette proportion d’enseignants qui se préoccupent de l’apprentissage de leurs étudiants et
tentent de l’améliorer.
Améliorer l’apprentissage de ses étudiants demande un questionnement sur sa pratique et une
remise en question de celle-ci. Pour faciliter ce questionnement, nous proposons que chaque
enseignant se pose les deux questions essentielles suivantes :
- Quelles sont les forces de mon enseignement actuel ? De quoi mes étudiants sont-ils
généralement satisfaits ? Que réussissent-ils généralement sans trop de problèmes,
grâce aux activités et aux ressources que je leur fournis ? Que trouvent-ils
intéressant et utile ?
- Quelles sont les faiblesses de mon enseignement actuel ? Quels sont les points dont
les étudiants se plaignent de manière récurrente ? Quels sont les points qui me
posent problème en tant qu’enseignant ou qui posent problème à mes étudiants ?
Ces questions sont largement inspirées du modèle connu sous le nom de SWOT. En anglais,
l’acronyme SWOT signifie « Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats », que l’on
pourrait traduire en français par « Forces, Faiblesses, Opportunités (ou occasions) et Menaces ».
Le modèle SWOT, issu du monde de l’économie2, propose, avant chaque décision, d’envisager pour
guider l’action les quatre facteurs sus-mentionnés.
Comme le résument Balamuralikrishna & Dugger (1995), « le message majeur d’une analyse SWOT
est probablement que, quel que soit le cours ou l’action décidée, la prise de décision devrait
comprendre chacun des éléments suivants : construire sur ses forces, minimiser ses faiblesses,
saisir les opportunités et contourner les menaces potentielles. »
Comme illustré par plusieurs exemples en annexe, une analyse SWOT se présente souvent sous
forme d’un tableau qui permet de visualiser de façon synoptique les deux facteurs internes
(Forces et Faiblesses) d’une part, les deux facteurs externes (Opportunités et Ecueils) d’autre
part. Les exemples choisis en annexe sont issus de milieux universitaires plutôt que
commerciaux 3 , plus facilement transférables à notre situation et susceptibles de donner des
idées, de faire émerger des facteurs cachés.

Kreber (2002) nomme « excellent enseignant » celui qui se questionne sur sa pratique, participe à des
1

formations complémentaires et souhaite s’améliorer. Les stades ultérieurs sont le stade « expert » et le
stade « professionnel de l’enseignement ». Pour plus de détails, voir section « pédagogie universitaire ».
L’encyclopédie Wikipédia propose la définition suivante : « Une analyse SWOT est un outil de planning
2

stratégique utilisé pour évaluer les forces, faiblesses, occasions et menaces en jeu dans un projet ou dans
une transaction commerciale. (…) L’analyse SWOT, généralement réalisée très tôt dans le processus de
développement du projet, aide les organisations à évaluer les facteurs environnementaux et la situation
interne en présence ». Pour une évaluation critique de l’usage du modèle SWOT en économie, voir Hill &
Westbrook (1997).
Les illustrations 7 et 8 sont d’ailleurs issues de l’université de Liège.
3

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P1

 Forces (internes) Faiblesses (internes)
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
Opportunités (externes) Menaces (externes)
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

Tableau 1: représentation classique d’une analyse SWOT (tableau vide)

Nous proposons aux enseignants de se centrer uniquement dans un premier temps sur les deux
premiers facteurs, les facteurs internes, sur lesquels ils ont le plus de pouvoir de décision. Se
poser des questions sur les forces et les faiblesses de son enseignement aidera chacun à en
améliorer certains côtés. Au vu des forces et des faiblesses, les améliorations envisagées
peuvent porter sur la satisfaction des étudiants (« mes étudiants détestent le chapitre 2 ») ou
leur motivation (« mes étudiants ne participent pas à mon cours »), sur l’impact de la formation
(« mes étudiants échouent quasi systématiquement aux questions qui leur demandent de résoudre
des problèmes complexes ») ou sur tout autre élément changeable (organisation du cours,
logistique,…).
Attention, il ne s’agit pas ici de se poser des questions sur ses propres forces et faiblesses mais
bien de se centrer sur son enseignement. Nous n’entrons donc pas ici dans des considérations de
type psychologique, même s’il arrive qu’un enseignant souhaite, se connaissant, choisir une
méthode d’enseignement qui lui correspond mieux.
Dans le demi-tableau SWOT ci-dessous, énumérez les Forces et Faiblesses que vous percevez
dans votre enseignement. Tentez d’envisager à la fois votre propre point de vue et celui de vos
étudiants. Au besoin, questionnez-les pour recueillir leurs avis. Vous pouvez faire de même avec
des collègues.

Forces de mon cours actuel Faiblesses de mon cours actuel

(satisfaction, apprentissage,…) (satisfaction, apprentissage,…)
1. ex. Ces dernières années, j’ai produit des 1. ex. Mes étudiants ne participent pas à mon
supports ppt très structurants cours
2. ex. Mes étudiants réussissent bien les tâches
2. ex. Mes étudiants détestent le chapitre 2
liées aux chapitres 1 et 4
3. ex. Mes étudiants échouent quasi
3. ex. Mes étudiants considèrent généralement
systématiquement aux questions qui leur
mes cotes comme étant le juste reflet de leurs
demandent de résoudre des problèmes
performances
complexes
4. 4.
5. 5.

Tableau 2 : exemple de Forces et Faiblesses (facteurs internes) listées par des enseignants.

Demandez-vous ensuite ce qui ressort de cette auto-analyse. Etes-vous surpris de certains

points ? A quelles Faiblesses pensez-vous pouvoir vous attaquer, sans élimer vos Forces ?
Comment le recours à l’APP ou à l’eLearning vous aideront-ils dans cette action d’amélioration de

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P2

votre cours ? Quelle sera votre question de recherche, celle à laquelle vous accorderez le plus
d’attention cette année ? A laquelle des faiblesses détectées cette question de recherche
tentera-t-elle d’apporter des éléments de réponse ?
Dans un second temps, envisagez les opportunités sur lesquelles vous pourrez vous appuyer (ex.
un soutien facultaire aux innovations, un collègue disponible et motivé,…), mais aussi les menaces
qui risquent de vous ralentir (un collègue absent dont il faudrait reprendre les étudiants, une
restructuration défavorable,...).
L’analyse des quatre composantes devrait vous permettre de guider votre projet, tirant parti de
vos forces, minimisant vos faiblesses, saisissant toute occasion et anticipant les menaces pour
mieux les éviter. Le tableau peut être adapté en cours de projet, lorsque de nouvelles
opportunités (ou menaces) se profilent. Nous suggérons de ne pas lui donner de prétention
d’exhaustivité mais de le considérer comme un révélateur, un stimulant, une aide à la discussion
avec vos collègues et à la prise de décision.

Références
- Balamuralikrishna, R. & Dugger, J. C. (1995) Swot Analysis: A Management Tool for
Initiating New Programs in Vocational Schools, Journal of Vocational and Technical
Education 12(1), Retrieved on July 10th from
[Link]
- Hill, T. and Westbrook, R. (1997) SWOT Analysis: It's time for a product recall, Long
Range Planning, vol 30, no 1, 1997.
- Encyclopédie Wikipedia, définition d’une analyse SWOT, référence du 20 juillet 2005
issue de [Link]

Annexe (réalisée par Chantal Dupont, LabSET-ULg)

Adapted from :
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

SWOT stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. SWOT analysis is a tool for
analyzing the current situation both internally (strengths and weaknesses) and externally
(opportunities and threats). It provides helpful baseline information for a group that wants to vision the
future or analyze a situation.
How to use tool :
Write down answers to the following questions. Where appropriate, use similar questions.
Envisage the questions in term of :
- motivation or satisfaction
- learning process or outcomes
- other (organisation, logistic, etc.)
Consider them from your own point of view and from the point of view of your students.
Carrying out this analysis will often be illuminating - both in terms of pointing out what needs to be
done, and in putting problems into perspective.

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P3

After filling in the quadrants, talk about what stands out from this analysis. Is it clear where you need to
focus your attention ? What is surprising ? What are the next steps ?
Any analysis requires data and information. If you do not have adequate information, the results of
your analysis are likely to be less reliable. However, we know that complete information is never
available. In the real world, you end up making your decisions with incomplete information. That is
where things like common sense, gut feel and experience kick in. Nonetheless, the SWOT framework
offers a good starting point for analysis.
However, do not hesitate to complement this first analysis by deeper investigation (questionnaires to
collegues, students, etc.)
Strengths:
• What advantages do you have ?
• What do you do well ?
• What relevant resources do you have access to ?
• What do other people see as your strengths ?
Don't be modest. Be realistic. If you are having any difficulty with this, try writing down a list of your
characteristics. Some of these will hopefully be strengths!
Weaknesses:
• What could you improve ?
• What do you do badly ?
• What do you have problems with ?
• What should you avoid ?
Again, consider this from an internal and external basis. Do other people seem to perceive
weaknesses that you do not see ?
Opportunities:
• Where are the good opportunities facing you ?
• What are the interesting trends you are aware of ?
A useful approach to looking at opportunities is to look at your strengths and ask yourself whether
these open up any opportunities. Alternatively, look at your weaknesses and ask yourself whether you
could open up opportunities by eliminating them.
Threats:
• What obstacles do you face ?
• Is changing technology threatening your position ?
• Could any of your weaknesses seriously threaten your work ?

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P4

 Illustration 1
Strategic plan, University of Mauritius
[Link]

S W
Potential Internal Strengths Potential Internal Weaknesses
1. Thirty years of proven experience in 1. Low recruitment and retention levels of
university level education and training staff due to unattractive terms and
with growing emphasis on research and conditions of employment.
consultancy activities to further enhance 2. Heavy dependence on part-time lecturers
quality of teaching and training. in some Faculties.
2. Established and proven know- 3. Inadequate research culture emanating
how/expertise in the fields of agriculture, from the initial "developmental" focus.
engineering, law, management, science, 4. Low proportion of PhD holders among
social sciences and humanities. academic staff.
3. An aesthetically designed campus with a 5. Inadequate institutional capacity so that
harmonious blend of vintage and modern the demand for higher education is not
buildings in the scenic and historic setting met.
of Le Réduit. 6. Absence of a systemic approach to
4. Up-to-date facilities and infrastructure like quality assurance constraining the
laboratories, teaching aids, networked development of management and
computers, farm, radio telescope etc. administrative structures with regard to
available to both staff and students. capacity building.
5. Academic activities adapted to the more 7. Little emphasis given to the recruitment of
recent socio-economic trends resulting in international students.
the development of a wide range of 8. Inadequate library facilities thus limiting
courses. academic development.
6. Quality assurance of 9. Inadequate public transport facilities after
courses/examinations through established normal working hours.
link arrangements with foreign universities 10. Lack of land for future expansion of the
leading to international recognition of campus.
University of Mauritius qualifications. 11. Lack of facilities for student
7. Experienced academic and support staff welfare/counselling/career guidance.
and continuous improvement of human 12. Limited sports facilities and other campus
resources through a strategic staff activities.
development programme. 13. Inadequate provision for an all round
8. Transparent selection of students based development of student personality.
on the principle of merit. 14. Insufficient sense of belonging to the
9. Alumni present nationally in both public University.
and private sectors and some holding 15. Few opportunities for continuing
regional/international positions. education and life long learning.
10. Institutionalised staff and student 16. Weak public perception due to the
representation at all levels within the absence of a public relations strategy.
University. 17. University as an institution is perceived to
11. Ability to participate fully in forums and be absent from debate on issues of
activities conducted in two major national importance.
international languages, English and
French.
12. Successful adoption of mixed mode
delivery for common modules with large
class sizes.

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P5

 O T
Potential External Opportunities Potential External Threats
1. Internationalisation of activities, especially 1. Inappropriate funding limiting scope of
regionally, including recruitment of future growth and productivity.
international students. 2. Free university education within the
2. Diversification of sources of revenue context of increasing trends of
through better exploitation of consultancy privatisation.
and research potentials. 3. Proliferation of providers of university
3. Strategic alliances and partnerships with level education.
institutions of international repute for 4. Absence of an effective national
offering university courses. regulatory framework for accreditation of
4. Strategic alliances with national degrees.
institutions. 5. Experienced staff leaving for greener
5. Exploitation of multi-lingual assets to pastures.
become a regional multi-lingual centre.
6. Use of distance education, flexible
learning and adoption of new information
and communications technologies to
increase access.
7. Strategic positioning for the organisation
of international seminars/executive
development programmes within the
context of globalisation.

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P6

 Illustration 2
The following analysis is based on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the Pittsburgh Fund for Arts
Education (PFAE), as determined by the Arts Education Systems Synthesis Team.
[Link]

S W
Potential Internal Strengths Potential Internal Weaknesses
1. Alice Leib 1. Only two staff members
o Background as educator and 2. Small, crowded office, difficult to organize
artist 3. No filing system for resource materials
o Flexible, embraces new ideas 4. Limited technical capabilities
o Has ties to the Pittsburgh o Can't build extensive database
community o No multi media capabilities
o Has realistic goals 5. Lack of development plan
o An effective leader 6. Lack of comprehensive mission
2. Basic computing capabilities 7. Limited scope of programs
o Word processing 8. Location of office
o Have potential database o Obscured in the midst of
capabilities downtown - public doesn't know it
o Email is there
3. Board of directors o No parking available
o Good knowledge base o Traffic congestion creates limited
o Diverse and representative of the access
arts organizations in Pittsburgh 9. Business hours are not conducive for the
4. Resource library arts organizations or the school system
o Extensive and diverse 10. Board of directors
5. Effective programming o In flux
o Workshops for Educators are well o Acting in an advisory role, not as
attended and well respected active as they could be
o Comprehensive listing of o Not a "giving" board
education-based arts programs o Not taking a proactive role in
and teachers fundraising
6. Location of Office 11. No long term plan
o In cultural district 12. Lack of public awareness
o On bus routes 13. Limited marketing strategy
o Surrounded by downtown's 14. No affective information dissemination
energy and activities mechanism
15. Limited scope of constituency; focuses
almost exclusively on the school system
16. Workshops have low attendance
17. Very little earned income

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P7

 O T
Potential External Opportunities Potential External Threats
1. Diverse arts community in Pittsburgh 1. Political climate is threatening
2. An educational gap exists that ALL can fill governmental support of the arts
3. There are many individuals dedicated to 2. Stigma of the NEA
the arts in Pittsburgh. (Which also means 3. Insufficient/inconsistent planning of arts
many potential new board members.) outreach/education programs
4. The Pittsburgh Board of Education 4. School system has the potential to create
supports ALL its own programs instead of drawing on
5. The Cultural Trust exists and gives local arts organizations.
support 5. School system wary of outside
6. The Heinz School at Carnegie Mellon organizations; wary about limited
University and its Arts Education Systems commitment
Synthesis team. 6. Lack of funding in Arts organizations
7. Nationally, arts education programs are 7. Bureaucracy of school systems makes
getting media coverage synthesis difficult
o An opportunity to get new ideas 8. New studies (Such as Outcomes-based
and become a national model Education) emphasize development of
8. Pittsburgh has a strong philanthropic technical skills and quantifiable results
community 9. Arts organizations are unresponsive to
9. Arts organizations are heavily involved in guidelines; seek autonomy in their
outreach education programs
10. Local government supports the arts
11. ALL is the only organization of its kind in
the community
12. There are lobbying possibilities
13. Adult Education is coming into national
prominence
o Possibility for audience expansion
14. Lifespan is getting longer - possibility of
senior citizen constituency

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P8

 Illustration 3
SWOT Analysis Questions for Job-Seekers in Career Planning
[Link]

These questions are designed to help job-seekers with developing your career SWOT Analysis.

S W
Potential Internal Strengths Potential Internal Weaknesses
• What are your advantages ? • What could be improved ?
• What do you do well ? • What do you do badly ?
• Why did you decide to enter the field you • What should you avoid ?
will enter upon graduation ? • What are your professional weaknesses ?
• What were the motivating factors and • How do they affect your job performance
influences ? ? (These might include weakness in
• Do these factors still represent some of technical skill areas or in leadership or
your inherent strengths ? interpersonal skills.)
• What need do you expect to fill within • Think about your most unpleasant
your organization ? experiences in school or in past jobs and
• What have been your most notable consider whether some aspect of your
achievements ? personal or professional life could be a
• To what do you attribute your success ? root cause.
• How do you measure your success ?
• What knowledge or expertise will you
bring to the company you join that may
not have been available to the
organization before ?
• What is your greatest asset ?

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P9

 O T
Potential External Opportunities Potential External Threats
• Where are the promising prospects facing • What obstacles do you face?
you? • Are the requirements for your desired job
• What is the "state of the art" in your field changing?
particular area of expertise? • Does changing technology threaten your
• Are you doing everything you can to prospective position?
enhance your exposure to this area? • What is the current trend line for your
• What formal training and education can personal area of expertise?
you add to your credentials that might • Could your area of interest be fading in
position you appropriately for more comparison with more emergent fields?
opportunities? • Is your chosen field subject to internal
• Would an MBA or another graduate politics that will lead to conflict?
degree add to your advantage? • Is there any way to change the politics or
• How quickly are you likely to advance in to perhaps defuse your involvement in
your chosen career? potential disputes?
• Useful opportunities can come from such • How might the economy negatively affect
things as: your future company and your work
o Changes in technology and group?
markets on both a broad and • Will your future company provide enough
industry-specific scale access to new challenges to keep you
o Changes in government policy sharp -- and marketable -- in the event of
related to your field sudden unemployment?
o Changes in social patterns,
population profiles, lifestyle
changes, etc.

Adapted in part from an article by Dave Jensen, managing director of Search Masters International.

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 10

 Illustration 4

[Link]

SWOT ANALYSIS: A MANAGEMENT TOOL FOR INITIATING

NEW PROGRAMS IN VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS

Radha Balamuralikrishna and John C. Dugger

Iowa State University

ABSTRACT

The SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats)

analysis has been a useful tool for industry. This article proposes the
application of the SWOT tool for use as a decision-making aid as new
vocational programs are planned.

The process of utilizing the SWOT approach requires an internal

survey of strengths and weaknesses of the program and an external
survey of threats and opportunities. Structured internal and external
examinations are unique in the world of curriculum planning and
development.

Educational examples using the SWOT analysis are provided by the

authors. It is a useful way of examining current environmental
conditions around program offerings. An insight into the wide range of
the potential applications of SWOT is also an intended outcome of
this paper.

SWOT ANALYSIS: A MANAGEMENT TOOL FOR INITIATING NEW

PROGRAMS IN VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS

The external environment has a profound impact on educational institutions. During

this final decade of the twentieth century, America's institutions, economy, society,
political structures, and even individual lifestyles are poised for new changes. Recent
shifts from an industrial to an information-based society and from a manufacturing to a
service-oriented economy has significantly impacted the demands made on vocational
program offerings (Martin, 1989). Vocational programs in comprehensive schools
generally cover a broad spectrum of service areas, but they provide fewer overall
programs within each of these areas than are provided in either vocational or specialty
schools (Weber, 1989). Existing programs, and those planned for the future
irrespective of the type of school, should be based on a careful consideration of future
trends in society.

Vocational administrators should become initiators in shaping the future of their

institutions. Strategies must be developed to ensure that institutions will be
responsible to the needs of the people in the year 2000 and beyond. To do so
requires¾among other things¾an examination of not only the individual college
environment but also the external environment (Brodhead, 1991). The Strengths,
Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis (also referred to as the
TOWS analysis in some management texts), provides a framework for educational
administrators to focus better on serving the needs of their communities.

Although originally intended for use in business applications, the idea of using this tool
in educational settings is not altogether new. For example, Gorski (1991) suggested
this approach to increase minority enrollment in community and other regional
colleges. Management tools originally intended for industry can frequently be tailored

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 11

 for application in education due to fundamental similarities in the administrative duties
of the respective chief executive officers.

SWOT is a simple, easy to understand technique. It can be used in formulating

strategies and policies for the administrator, however, it is by no means an end in
itself. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how SWOT can be used by
administrators to analyze and initiate new program offerings in vocational education.

SWOT IN THE PRESENT CONTEXT

SWOT analysis can be simply understood as the examination of an organization's

internal strengths and weaknesses, and its environments, opportunities, and threats. It
is a general tool designed to be used in the preliminary stages of decision-making and
as a precursor to strategic planning in various kinds of applications (Johnson et al.,
1989; Bartol et al., 1991). When correctly applied, it is possible for a vocational school
to get an overall picture of its present situation in relation to its community, other
colleges, and the industries its students will enter. An understanding of the external
factors, (comprised of threats and opportunities), coupled with an internal examination
of strengths and weaknesses assists in forming a vision of the future. Such foresight
would translate to initiating competent programs or replacing redundant, irrelevant
programs with innovative and relevant ones.

The first step in a SWOT analysis is to make a worksheet by drawing a cross, creating
four sectors¾one each for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. An
outline of a worksheet is shown in Figure 1. The next step is to list specific items
related to the problem at hand, under the appropriate heading in the worksheet. It is
best to limit the list to 10 or fewer points per heading and to avoid over-generalizations
(Johnson et al., 1989).

Potential Internal Strengths Potential Internal Weaknesses

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.

Potential External Opportunities Potential External Threats

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.

Figure 1. A SWOT worksheet

SWOTs can be performed by the individual administrator or in groups. Group

techniques are particularly effective in providing structure, objectivity, clarity and focus
to discussions about strategy which might otherwise tend to wander or else be
strongly influenced by politics and personalities (Glass, 1991). Sabie (1991) noted that

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 12

 when working in groups in educational settings, three distinct attitudes emerge among
teachers depending on their years of service. Teachers having 0-6 years of
experience tend to be the most participative and receptive to new ideas.

The SWOT should cover all of the following areas, each of which may be a source of
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities or threats:

Internal environment of the institution

1. faculty and staff

2. classrooms, laboratories and facilities (the learning environment)
3. current students
4. operating budget
5. various committees
6. research programs

External environment of the institution

1. prospective employers of graduates

2. parents and families of students
3. competing colleges
4. preparatory high schools
5. population demographics
6. funding agencies

THE INTERNAL SURVEY OF WEAKNESSES AND STRENGTHS

Historically, administrators seek to attract students to their college programs by

increased promotional and advertisement efforts without paying any heed to their
institution's strengths and weaknesses. If, indeed, such internal audits are carried out,
areas requiring some changes reveal themselves. Furthermore, the potential and
possibilities for new services and programs may also emerge. Making a list of internal
weaknesses could reveal areas that can be changed to improve the college, also
some things that are beyond control. Examples of inherent weaknesses are quite
numerous. A few are listed as follows: low staff and faculty morale; poor building
infrastructure; sub-standard laboratory and workshop facilities; scarce instructional
resources; and even the location of the institution within the community.

Seldom do weaknesses occur in isolation; strengths are present and need to be

enlisted as well. Examples of potential strengths could be: (a) a reasonable tuition fee
charged from students; (b) strong and dedicated faculty with a high morale; (c)
articulation with other four-year colleges and universities which would enable students
to transfer course credits; (d) a strong reputation for providing the training required to
get entry-level employment; and (e) diversity among the student population.

Minority enrollment and retention is a particularly important emerging issue because

vocational schools have a mission to education people from all sectors of society
(Gorski, 1991). Demographic projections have predicted a two- to four-fold
accelerated growth of Hispanic and Afro-American population relative to the white
majority, and this will be reflected in the number of job seekers (Crispell, 1990).

The assessment of strengths and weaknesses are also facilitated through surveys,
focus groups, interviews with current and past students, and other knowledgeable
sources. Once weaknesses and strengths are delineated, it would be appropriate to
reconfirm these items. It should be recognized that different perceptions may exist

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 13

 depending on the representative group consulted. Figure 2 depicts an example using
a SWOT analysis.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION: Consider a community technical college that is planning to

add some new programs. Assume that, during previous brainstorming sessions, several ideas
emerged and a program in laser technology is being strongly contemplated by the department
chair and other faculty. The department or the chair and a select group of faculty could meet
and conduct a SWOT analysis to help develop a strategy. The following points may appear on
the worksheet.
Potential Internal Strengths Potential Internal Weaknesses
1) Existing electronics and electrical
1) Current faculty are not well versed in laser
programs could provide some basics
technology.
required for a laser technology program.
2) Faculty who are enthusiastic and
2) Lack of sufficient space for the required extra
willing to go the extra mile to acquire
equipment.
knowledge and training in lasers.
3) Sufficient funds to invest in high 3) Current safety features are not adequate for
technology programs. handling potential hazards such as lasers.
4) Successful experiences in the past 4) A faction in the faculty want a program in
with new, dynamic programs, thus, microprocessor technology rather than in laser
expertise in dealing with change. technology.
Potential External Opportunities Potential External Threats
1) Local area hospitals, metal industries 1) The technical college in a nearby county has
and communication companies suffer already taken a lead and possesses the
from a critical shortage of laser infrastructure to start a laser technology program
technologists. any time soon.
2) State and nation-wide demand for 2) Programming many not get approval from the
laser technologists is projected to board because of previous history of accidents of
increase for the next 10 years. the college.
3) Local high school teachers' and 3) Some efficient and cheaper alternatives to laser
students' enthusiasm for the proposed devices are appearing in recent literature which, if
program could result in recruiting the true, will not hold a bright future for prospective
best students. laser technologists.
4) Expert laser technologists in area 4) High school students in the area indicate a
hospitals and industries have offered to preference for business programs rather than
give their expertise on a part-time basis. technical ones.

Figure 2. Sample SWOT analysis used to consider the feasibility of initiating a laser
technology program

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 14

 EXTERNAL SURVEY OF THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES

The external look is complementary to the internal self-study in a SWOT analysis.

National and regional influences¾as well state and local concerns¾are of paramount
importance when deciding what new programs need to be added or which existing
ones need to be modified or removed. Gilley et al. (1986) identified ten fundamentals
of institutions that are "on-the-move", one of which is the ability of institutions to
maintain a close watch on their communities. Not only must administrators keep an
eye on the community, but they must also play a leadership role by addressing
relevant issues.

Information about the current business climate, demographic changes, and

employment and high school graduation rates should be considered in this phase of
the study. A multitude of sources include¾but are not limited to¾parents and
community leaders, local newspapers, national news magazines, higher education
journals, conferences, the local industrial advisory council, and local business
contacts. Each of these is a potential source of highly valuable information.

Threats need to be ascertained. They come in various forms. Increasingly, restrictive

budgets for vocational education are a rule rather than an exception. An anticipated
cut in state or federal funding can have a significant impact on implementing a high-
budget program. Nearby universities and other local area colleges may be planning
some new changes to attract more students to their programs. In addition, a
decreasing number of high school graduates in the region and surrounding areas may
pose a considerable threat by way of reduced student demand for some planned
programs.

An awareness of demographic changes in the local population can reveal potential

opportunities to address new issues and pave the way for a more meaningful
education. There could exist a pattern of preferences among the various minority or
cultural groups. Public concern for the global environment is relatively new and this
may represent an area of opportunity. Newer industries or businesses could emerge
in the near future, seeking well-trained graduates.

It should be recognized that opportunities and threats are not absolute. What might at
first seem to be an opportunity, may not emerge as such when considered against the
resources of the organization or the expectations of society. The greatest challenge in
the SWOT method could probably be to make a correct judgment that would benefit
both the institution and the community.

DRAWBACKS OF SWOT

SWOTs usually reflect a person's existing position and viewpoint, which can be
misused to justify a previously decided course of action rather than used as a means
to open up new possibilities. It is important to note that sometimes threats can also be
viewed as opportunities, depending on the people or groups involved. There is a
saying, "A pessimist is a person who sees a calamity in an opportunity, and an
optimist is one who sees an opportunity in a calamity." In the example provided in
Figure 2, the opportunity provided by experts in industry to train students may be
viewed by faculty members as a threat to their own position and job.

SWOTs can allow institutions to take a lazy course and look for 'fit' rather than to
'stretch'¾they look for strengths that match opportunities yet ignore the opportunities
they do not feel they can use to their advantage. A more active approach would be to
involve identifying the most attractive opportunities and then plan to stretch the
college to meet these opportunities. This would make strategy a challenge to the
institution rather than a fit between its existing strengths and the opportunities it
chooses to develop (Glass, 1991).

SUMMARY

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 15

 A SWOT analysis can be an excellent, fast tool for exploring the possibilities for
initiating new programs in the vocational school. It can also be used for decision
making within departments and committees or even by individuals. A SWOT analysis
looks at future possibilities for the institution through a systematic approach of
introspection into both positive and negative concerns. It is a relatively simple way of
communicating ideas, policies, and concerns to others. It can help administrators to
quickly expand their vision. Probably the strongest message from a SWOT analysis is
that, whatever course of action is decided, decision making should contain each of the
following elements: building on Strengths, minimizing Weaknesses, seizing
Opportunities, and counteracting Threats.

In order to be most effectively used, a SWOT analysis needs to be flexible. Situations

change with the passage of time and an updated analysis should be made frequently.
SWOT is neither cumbersome nor time-consuming and is effective because of its
simplicity. Used creatively, SWOT can form a foundation upon which to construct
numerous strategic plans for the vocational school.

REFERENCES

Bartol, K. M., & Martin, D. C. (1991). Management. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.

Broadhead, C. W. (1991). Image 2000: A vision for vocational education. To look

good, we've got to be good. Vocational Education Journal, 66(1), 22-25.

Crispell, D. (1990). Workers in 2000. American Demographics, 12(3), 36-40.

Gilley, J. W., Fulmer, K. A., & Reithlingschoefer, S. J. (1986). Searching for academic
excellence: Twenty colleges and universities on the move and their leaders.
New York: ACE/Macmillan.

Glass, N. M. (1991). Pro-active management: How to improve your management

performance. East Brunswick, NJ: Nichols Publishing.

Gorski, S. E. (1991). The SWOT team - Focusing on minorities. Community,

Technical, and Junior College Journal, 61(3), 30-33.

Johnson, G., Scholes, K., & Sexty, R. W. (1989). Exploring strategic management.
Scarborough, Ontario: Prentice Hall.

Martin, W. R. (1989). Handbook on marketing vocational education. Westerville: Ohio

State Council on Vocational Education.

Sabie, A. (1991). The industrial arts/technology education: A supervisor's perspective.

The Technology Teacher, 51(2), 13-14.

Weber, J. M. (1989). Variations in selected characteristics across three types of high

schools that offer vocational programs. Journal of Industrial Teacher
Education, 26(4), 5-37.

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 16

 Illustration 5

University of central Oklahoma

[Link]

S W
Potential Internal Strengths Potential Internal Weaknesses
1. New focus and attention from top 1. Technical infrastructure is not in place
administrators 2. Resources are limited, including physical,
2. Much of campus seems eager to embrace capital, and human
technology 3. A training system is not developed
3. Campus seems to be responsive when 4. Many different types of technology on
surveyed about needs campus. Everyone seems to be at
4. Much of campus seems to be using different level and using different systems.
technology in one form or another Difficult to transfer information from one
5. Library- LAN access and Web access to a area to another
wide range or research materials- 5. Need for a campus technology plan. It
indexes, abstracts and full text would create a vision for staff/faculty in all
6. Bibliographic Instruction program - areas and offer guidance as campus
instructed 316 classes in FY 97 departments examine their needs and
information literacy skills in a hands- plan technology purchases
on environment 6. Access to research resources- limited
7. New library facility with built-in capacity for access to teletronic research resources
expansion of electronic access throughout outside the library
the building as need develops 7. Training - Campus wide ongoing need for
8. Small class sizes- provides opportunity for training in uses of technology - faculty in
more personal interaction, more attention instructional technology; staff in use of
9. Concerned faculty who place ( and are Windows, e-mail, applications software,
required to place) greater emphasis on etc.
teaching and lesser emphasis on 8. Information literacy skills - Many students
research than OU/OSU, but a greater do not have the skills to use information
emphasis on research than OCCC or technology or a realistic understanding of
Rose State. Research does feed what information technology can and can
education not do for them. A required 1 or 2 hour
10. Equipment ( including computers) widely course in information and computer
available for use by undergraduates literacy skills is needed, aimed at teaching
rather than reserved primarily for students to use, understand and evaluate
graduate student use the electronic information environment
11. Oklahoma OneNet and to be comfortable in the computer
12. UCO fiber-optic backbone environment. The course could be
13. Response time for administrative systems modular and team taught, parts of it
is excellent delivered online and part in the
14. Generally positive service attitude by IT classroom. Students could "clep" out of
staff in listening to user even if they don't skills that the already have. The goal
have the resources to deliver or commit to would be to produce information smart
what is wanted students. It could be a strong recruiting
15. IT systems staff has experience and tool.
expertise, oftentimes knowing better what 9. Library's online system (NOTIS) is
the user needs than some users obsolete. It is not being developed or well
16. Shared vision and goals regarding supported by the producer AMERITECH.
student technology It needs to be replaced. New web-based
17. True spirit of cooperation among systems offer a powerful, varied array of
departments service and access options
18. View technology as more than just 10. Need for campus wide electronic
computers connectivity
19. New General Access Lab 11. Need for campus wide debit card system
20. State of the Art Graphic Arts Lab 12. Deteriorating/neglected physical
21. State of the Art Multimedia Presentation infrastructure
Lab 13. Too few staff in Information Technology

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 17

 22. New Journalism Lab Department
23. New Classroom Instructional Lab 14. Under-utilization of Domino server
24. New Software for Foreign Language Lab 15. Lack of POP3/SMTP mail server
25. Updated Broadcast Lab 16. Flat budgets with rising expenses
26. New classroom technology (chemicals, supplies, equipment)
27. Two full-time employees, two part-time 17. Too little shared expertise in network and
employees and seven student workers Internet usage as tools for education
28. Faculty use new technology to enhance 18. Too little shared expertise in development
their course of multimedia applications in the
29. Eight student computing labs classroom or supporting the classroom
30. Over 100 new student machines 19. Inadequate staff resources to meet the
31. Common Goals service demands by the user community
32. Team work and unable to compete with the private
33. Team players sector when hiring systems expertise
34. Good attitude 20. Lack of truly integrated system for
35. Customer Service Oriented academic and administrative processes
36. Skills/Knowledge - breadth of knowledge that run efficiently and eliminate data
37. Communications redundancy
38. Knowledge 21. Lack of a published, clearly documented
39. Different working experiences - diversity and prioritized plan for computing needs
of experience and growth for the campus
40. New department which does not have to 22. Inadequate building space for student
overcome the burden of past prejudices labs
41. Dedicated intelligent staff 23. Insufficient staff
42. Department areas of responsibility valued 24. Lack of exposure at conferences
by upper management, staff and faculty 25. Insufficient funding for conferences/site
43. Department has the potential to save the visits
University money and assist in obtaining 26. Scheduling students
external funding 27. Short Staff
44. Departmental responsibilities "fit" with 28. Planning for emergencies
global technology trends 29. Lack of personnel to meet University
45. Introduction of "help-desk" concept needs for training, consulting and
46. Leadership support and commitment from distance education technical support
the President 30. Current staff will need time to update
47. IT staff competency and attitude current skills and technology hardware,
48. Every faculty and staff member has a software, etc, knowledge
computer, printer, modem and up-to-date 31. Scattered and temporary office locations,
software physical locations
49. Faculty are in intermediate training on 32. Years of inadequate technology support
several software packages, including MC in many areas - need more staff
Word, PowerPoint, SPSS, etc. 33. No written list of services or plan to
50. Equipment in new building is state of the address how department will support the
art University constituents
51. Mobile equipment is being purchased for 34. Under staffing of some established areas
other buildings in College of Education 35. Communication; need for training; lack of
52. Faculty are using technology more and funds for raises and training; customer
more and have been positive and active service
in professional development in the area of 36. Lack of communication between
technology departments; lack of funds to make the
changes that need to be made; need for
more training
37. Lack of training/ professional
development
38. Inadequate staffing; lack of
communication; left out of decisions
39. Work overload in some areas; lack of
adequate staffing; lack of clear direction;
division/strife within department; lack of
specific goals
40. If the people here now leave, it will take
more replacement people longer to do the
same amount of work.

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 18

 41. Manpower shortage, communications;
lack of a published plan that details what
will take place in the next three-five years
42. Lack of information; lack of
communications; low staff salary
43. Interdepartmental communications within
IT and external with UC
44. Clear understanding of mission
45. Strategic planning
46. Insufficient policy and resource structure
47. Lack of a UC strategic plan
48. Multiple, competing technology priorities
49. Lack of fiber distributed through buildings
for access to graphics and text on the
Internet
50. Lack of fiber also hinders networking
51. Limited training on distance learning
techniques
52. Lack of ability to provide distance training
in a centralized location such as the new
College of Education building, rather than
Thatcher Hall

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 19

 O T
Potential External Opportunities Potential External Threats
1. Leader in Oklahoma in teaching 1. Competition from other universities, within
technologies and outside of Oklahoma
2. Many students using few facilities which 2. Cost to upgrade and update resources is
are expensive tremendous
3. Leader in Oklahoma in educating a large 3. Competition from private sector
technological work force 4. If we are not technologically-savvy, other
4. Because the campus as a whole has not campuses might appear more attractive to
received information/guidelines on students, faculty, and staff. We might lose
technology and the direction UC is going, our best and brightest.
it is opportunity to survey them and direct 5. The longer we wait to make technology
then provide campus. Maybe improvements, the more difficult it will be
informational meetings and/or IT to play catch-up - - especially in the areas
newsletter, etc. could help to inform the of money committed fro technology and
campus and help motivate and educate the training for faculty, staff, and students.
5. We could identify departments to test pilot 6. Nationwide (global?) competition for "our"
innovative, technology projects. If these students
test pilots were successful, perhaps these 7. Loss of students who want a "traditional"
areas in which technology was used to education if we neglect their needs as we
enhance curriculum would help to set UC strive to adapt to distance learning
apart from competitors. (Might help with environment
recruitment, enrollment, retention, and 8. Lack of funding- ever-present shortage of
instruction.) funds combined with accelerating funding
6. Web-based systems will transform and needs
enhance information access and services. 9. The high cost of technology ( both
We have the opportunity to combine the purchase and maintenance): hardware,
best of electronic/digital resources with software, expertise in its use, and
valuable, viable traditional resources and knowledge of its existence
services 10. Statewide articulation agreements in
7. Continuing education and distance general education courses leading to a
learning programs in addition to traditional watering down of education in the state to
programs, can bring new students/higher that of the weakest institutions
enrollments 11. Political efforts in state legislatures to
8. Cooperative efforts- many opportunities to push an agenda of full accountability in
work within and benefit from statewide education, implementation of a business
and nationwide cooperative efforts to paradigm for education without
deliver high quality educational services consideration of pedagogy, pressure for
to students in the classroom and in the more direct student contract hours in
library education, and the elimination of tenure
9. Can become the most service oriented because of a few abuses and a
institution in the metro area and in the misunderstanding of its purpose
state if we can deliver the administrative 12. The view of distance learning or electronic
services we want to offer in a variety of delivery of courses from a cost-cutting
delivery modes: viewpoint alone as a replacement for the
current teaching paradigm rather than as
Internet, web, interactive voice just one more tool for education to use.
response, campus computer Too many zealots !
access and operator assisted 13. As the Edmond community becomes
more high tech saturated, UCO will be
10. Can become truly integrated into unable to provide the support necessary
to meet their need and the benefit of
the fabric of the Edmond HQ
effort as the local technical being the technical provider will be lost to
resource for training or enhancing a competing institution or a "for profit"
training institute of an established
education for business employees
and preparing future graduates company
for the jobs of a high tech 14. UCO, based on limited state support,
cannot provide its student constituents the
environment
11. Could establish a booming local state of the art, high quality education that
will be required to meet the needs of a

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 20

 market for internships for our constantly demanding high tech society
students to enhance their 15. Buzzed might still not be a finished
educational experience product
12. Complete Classroom Instructional 16. Inadequate building space for student
Lab labs
13. Replace Workstations in 119 17. Insufficient staff
14. Construct new classroom lab with 18. Lack of exposure at conferences
old machines 19. Insufficient funding for conferences/site
15. Upgrade Software visits
16. Add to Music and Piano Labs 20. Attempted reallocating of funding that will
17. Presenting new technologies to prevent the above from being achieved
the University 21. Exception from everyone, on change
18. Understand where the University 22. Keeping planning unit going
is trying to go 23. Money
19. Getting the key players 24. Individuals who not only refuse to change
20. Opens small Lab in but also work to keep others from
Communication building pursuing improvement activities
21. Upgrade existing labs 25. Individuals whose attitudes are
22. Re-tool Language lab inappropriately critical and self centered
23. Develop Interactive 26. The rapid changes that are taking place
history/geography classrooms globally not only in technology, but in all
24. Add more classroom based forms of communication
instructional technology 27. Inactivity due to feeling that UCO is "too
25. University in dire need of all kinds behind to ever catch up"
of technology support 28. Managers who are not able to make a
26. University wide appreciation for hard decision that, while difficult, are truly
technology best for all concerned
27. University wide strategic planning 29. Under staffing of some established areas,
efforts to provide focus for short workload/workforce
and long range goals 30. Communication; need for training; lack of
28. Technology is becoming easier to funds for raises and training; customer
understand and less expensive to service
purchase; therefore easier to 31. Lack of communication between
support departments; lack of funds to make the
29. Excellent compliment of positive, changes that need to be made; need for
intelligent hardworking supportive more training
colleagues 32. Lack of training/ professional
30. Increase training to keep informed development
of new technology; increase 33. Recognizing what is our competition
teamwork between areas within 34. Resources
department 35. Willingness to change or adapt
31. The hope that the outcome of the 36. Finding uniqueness in market
planning groups will lead to 37. Narrow mindedness
positive actions; the opportunity to 38. Inadequate staffing; lack of
work together as a team to communication; left out of decision
improve our University; to give 39. Work overload in some areas; lack of
employees the chance to learn adequate staffing; lack of clear direction;
other job areas to give a better division/strife within department; lack of
overall understanding of UC; to team spirit
develop an overall attitude of 40. Communication between employees;
customer service, to better serve negative attitudes-certain employees; not
other departments and students enough support of each other; lack of
32. Improving the quality of education specific goals
at the university; upgrading the 41. If the people here now leave, it will take
computer technology being more replacement people longer to do the
taught; upgrading computer same amount of work
equipment that the students us 42. Manpower shortage; communications;
33. New Technology lack of a published plan that details what
34. Increased Internet usage; will take place in the next three-five years
improved technology 43. Lack of information; Lack of
35. New opportunities to utilize latest communications; low staff salary
technology; more web-based 44. Limited funds

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 21

 opportunities; applications and 45. Technological advances could threaten
courses; better communication the traditional University ( physically
via technology; more attending classes; current enrollment
opportunities for improving work declines; UCO needs a more positive
skills image of campus life ( not just a
36. Attending training classes; allow commuter college); employees must
users more ownership of their remember the students are our
computer system customers; morale of our employees
37. New$/or improved computer 46. Lack of money to make needed changes;
system to install; new $'s for lack of willingness to implement changes
improving skills to learn; new$'s 47. Lack of training
for improved opportunities to 48. Lack of cross training
provide service to a University 49. Fast pace of technology development
38. Build up communications among makes current work obsolete very fast;
departments; inform about the lack of adequate employee compensation
new system; improve enrollment may reduce staff IT takes the blame for
system; free class for the staff other people's mistakes; lack of resources
39. Education on demand needed to implement cutting edge
40. Research on demand solutions; Year 2000 issues will continue
41. Integration of voice/data/video into next century
services 50. Division of department into groups; lack of
42. Support services written documentation of systems or
43. Ability to implement technology in activities or processes; Year 2000
a timely fashion concerns with hardware and /or software
44. Refined UC strategic plan and 51. Year 2000; BUZZEO, if purchased has
policies infrastructure in place and not had a one site test anywhere
well-oiled 52. Loss of key personnel; low enrollment (
45. New, yet-unknown technology low funding); outsourcing of computer
applications combined with services
industrial/corporate patterning 53. Lack of training for staff; low enrollment;
46. Lower technology costs resulting budgeting for staff salary
in more bang for the buck 54. Life-cycle support for technology already
47. Use of technology to enhance on hand
classroom learning 55. Keeping up with student/market-place
48. Ability to communicate with students demands- and our competition
electronically 56. Adequate resource base, despite lower
49. Distance learning opportunities are technology costs
increasing 57. Technology is changing so rapidly that we
must continue to receive moneys
necessary to remain current with
equipment and software
58. Faculty should be given load credit to
create innovative curriculum for their
course using technology /distance
learning
59. We must continue to move forward or we
will become obsolete and stagnant
60. Direction must come from the University

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 22

 Illustration 6

UK Education. Sector : different education. governing bodies

THREATS. EXTERNAL. RECOMMENDATIONS.
.[Link]/website/images/ new/business/sampmaps/[Link]

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 23

 Illustration 7

GISs & DCs : Raising the level of expectations of learning outcomes via
assessment procedures
D. Leclercq. Faculty of Psychology and Education of the university of Liège,
July 2005

Sometimes, improving quality is raising the standards of excellence, having high expectations.

For instance, requesting the students not only to be able to detect THE correct answer amongst a series
of 4 or 5 solutions in a Multiple Choice Question (MCQ) but also to be able to detect absurd
questions or questions to which it is impossible to answer since necessary data are lacking (Wood,
1977). And this applies as well for Open ended questions as for MCQs. This capacity of “cognitive
vigilance” pertains to the “analysis” level of Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of cognitive objectives, and
contribute also to measure deep understanding and application since understanding a rule (or a law)
implies not only to be able to apply it but also the capacity to detect situations where it does NOT
apply. For this reasons, in all D. Leclercq’s exercises and exams (from first and second year in
psychology to preparation to Professorship) the students are invited to consider four possible General
Implicit Solutions (GISs) : None, All, Lack of data, Absurdity in the question. The two first GISs are
specific to MCQs. They are called “general” since they concern all the questions in a test. They are
called “implicit” since they are not repeated in each question ; they are announced only once, at the
start of the test.

An other increase in the expectations is to request from that they not only know the content of the
courses, but that in addition they know what they know…and what they ignore. This metacognition
ability can be easily trained and measured by the technique of the Degrees of Certainty (DC), i.e. to
add to each answer, a DC chosen amongst the six levels of probabilities of the answer being
considered as correct by the professor : 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%.

This approach has been described in many places.4

For each individual set of answers to a test, a horizontal “spectral distribution” of answers can be
displayed, from -100 (the worse situation : error with the highest DC) to +100 (Correct answer with
highest DC). Zones of quality are defined : dangerous knowledge (or misconceptions), unusable
knowledge (doubtful knowledge), usable knowledge (confident correct knowledge) as suggested by
Hunt (1993). Two hemispectra have to be considered. The left one concerns incorrect answers and the
right one correct answers. Each of them should be J shaped (the educationists’curve, opposed to the
psychologists’ bell-shaped curve).5.

A series of individual indices of under estimation or over estimation can be computed such as
Confidence, Imprudence and Nuance 6 . These indices are the basis for “metacognitive dialogs”
between the teacher and the students, on an individual basis. They are also the basis for an original
scoring system rewarding additively mastery and realism in self assessment. Currently, the
metacognitive dialogs take place mainly by the web and with the help of an assistant (Wislez, 2004).
Researches show that this method provides new light on subtle phenomena (such as changes in mind,
progresses in learning), improves the explanation of psychological phenomena and improves the
validity of educational tests since it gives access to partial knowledge. .

More and more professors use this method.

4
(De Finetti, 1965 ; Leclercq, 1983, 1993, 2005).
5
Leclercq (2003). Glossary. Chapter 1 of D. Leclercq (Ed) Diagnostic cognitive et métacognitif au seuil de l’université. Liège : Editions de
l’université de Liège.
6
(Leclercq & Poumay, 2004)

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 24

 General Implicit Solutions & Degrees of Certainty

Strenghts Weaknesses
-Giving DC does not take extra time to students -Students are not familiar with this method and
during the testing period since doubt is presenteven the concepts of realism, partial knowledge.
anyway. Some students even complain when they Therefore they should be trained, since hey did
are not authorized to express their degree of not encounter that mode of thinking and
certainty (or of doubt). responding in primary and secondary schools.
That is a pity, but it would be a greater damage if
-DCs offer additional information (and does not they were not trained in this respect at the
suppress the classical one). university level.

-It s possible to separate the two measures : the -These concepts are largely unknown and
one concerning mastery and the one concerning encounter arguments even before the opponents
realism and, therefore to weigh them at will in know exactly what it is about : it needs to be
the scoring system. informed of a series of concepts and procedures.

Opportunities Threads
-Computers handle more and more easily huge -Misuses of such techniques are not unfrequent.
quantities of information. They can in real time Examples in the literature are numerous (see
process the answer, compute the indices and Journal of Educational Measurement in the 1960-
display the graphical expressions of them. 1980 period)
-
-Storing the previous performances of a student
helps providing evolutions of them in many
respect : vigilance, realism ( Confidence,
Imprudence, Nuance)

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 25

 Illustration 8

IFRES - EUA
RESSAC : a strategy to improve learning strategies to achieve learning
outcomes
Faculty of Psychology and Education of the University of Liège
D. Leclercq, S. Bredart, M. Crahay & Ch. Mormont
July 2005

In numerous faculties, university professors are deceived about the high rate of first year students who
study in an inadequate way, not realizing that they are expected to know AND to understand.
Some know but do not understand since they have studied in a superficial way and stored contents by
rote learning 7 . Some others understand, practiced deep learning, but did not make the effort to
memorize since they did not realize that in each science there are fundamental facts or methods that
have to be mastered. Not mentioning those who did half of each.
Professors know that for a long time and the institution has developed actions to prevent it, by offering
lectures, seminars and exercises on how to study, assuming principally that there is a lack in their
capacity to memorize and understand. Results are deceivingly low in terms of changes.

An other way to face the problem is to make the hypothesis that for a lot of students the lack is not in
their capacity but in their will to memorize, or to deep learn or both, that many of them try how
their spontaneous way to study will work (pass or fail) and will change only if they fail. Starting from
this standpoint, an experiment has been organized for the first year students of the faculty of
psychology and Education of the University of Liège to take advantage of the first real size feedback,
i.e. just after the mid-term exams where students usually are informed of they successes and failures in
4 or 5 courses partial exams. Since they will have a second chance (in june or September), the
feedback is of great importance for those who failed (the majority of them). Classically, the feedback
is a score on 20 for each of the courses. With such a minimal feedback, students authorize themselves
to attribute their failures to external causes 8 such as excessive severity of a teacher, excessive
difficulty of a content, excessive complexity of questions, momentary disease when taking the test,
etc.

In 2000 for the first time and this year (2005) for the second time, 4 professors decided to split their
score (on 20) on two distinct scores, one related to memory (Knowledge score) and one to
understanding (Use of Knowledge score). These feedbacks were also given in a graphical way, called
the Z radiography, where the 8 scores were displayed in horizontal histograms centered on 0, the
average score and ranking from -3 to +3, i.e. in Z scores.
Therefore, each student could see, from this personal radiography whether there were cross courses
tendencies such as “below average in 3 courses out of 4 for understanding, but above average in
memory”.

These pieces of information were delivered before the month dedicated to prepare the exams of june
via autonomous study (courses are finished). Interviewed after the june exams but before knowing
their june results, students had to tell whether they changed their study methods (and in which
respect) . Some did, others did not. These two a posteriori groups were compared in terms of successes
and failures in their june and September exams. The difference in terms of successes was
dramatically in favour of the group of students who changed their study method accordingly to their Z
radiography, in each of the 4 courses.

The experiment and the results have been largely described9.

7
(Entwistle, Houssell & Marton, 1984)
8
(Rotter, 1966 & Wiener, 1985)
9
Leclercq (2003). RESSAC : Résultats d’Epreuves Standardisées au Service des Apprentissages en Candi9. In Leclercq (Ed).
Diagnostic cognitif et métacognitif au seuil de l’université. Liège : Editions de l’Université de Liège, 155-170.

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 26

 RESSAC

Strengths Weaknesses
-Does not require excessive extra work from -The strategy must have been planned in advance
teachers if scores are obtained by automatically in order to insure a minimal number of questions
scored exams (MCQs, etc.) revealing memorization or deep understanding,
-The feedback is simple since limited to two since some questions are so “undecidable” that
concepts (memorization – understanding) they are not taken into account to compute any of
-The feedback is repeated (on 4 courses) so that the two subscores. –This requests additional
the student can make the difference between work when the copies are open ended essay type
systematic features and occasional ones. questions.
-The feedback is directly linked to the study -A part of the effectiveness of this approach is
method that is in the students’hands. It empowers due to the fact that the exams count : they
them by understanding the effects of their REALLY fail or pass. Earlier in the year,
decisions (it makes the causes internal and knowing that the test is just formative, the
changeable). students would care less.

Opportunities Threads
-The issue is shared by many faculties -Students could live this approach as “invasive”
-The procedure can be applied in any faculty (whereas we did not observe a single complain of
-Optical reading systems and On-line formative this kind)
testing can offer this possibility earlier in the
school year.

Poumay, M. (2005) SWOT en Pédagogie Universitaire : Questionner sa Pratique d’Enseignant. P 27