Abrégé d'analyse mathématique en Pulaar
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adamaniass12Abrégé d'analyse mathématique en Pulaar
Transféré par
adamaniass12Ñoggannde Silo Hiisiwo
Un abrégé d'analyse mathématique en langue Pulaar-Fulfulde
A summary of mathematical analysis in Pulaar-Fula language
Dr. Hammadi Faalil Sih
.
Copyright © 2022 Hammadi F. Sih
Hay gooto yamiraaka yeeyde. Kala kuutorogol jannginirgol walla
caaktirgol ganndal, ngol wonaa ngaluyankeewol, ina yamiraa. Ji¡¡o
jokkondireede yo winndu en e [Link]@[Link]
Yalti ko See¡to 2022
Faade e Kudi mo ballal mum mee¡aani lohde !
Faade e kala gollantoo¡o ¡em¡e afrikiweeje !
Faade e darinoo e hanki kan e darii e hannde, darnde la ,
ngam amtude Pulaar!
Jaaroore heeriinde feewde e ceerno Bookara Aamadu Bah ngam
wa¡de hollitirde faayodinnde deftere ndee.
Ko anndotaako alaa, ko alaa ko ina anndee alataa.
Pularal
Hollitirde
Caggal Binndan¡e Hiisiyankooje e Gannde Hiisiwe, ndee¡oo
deftere woni deftere tata ere nde Muhammadu Faalil Sih winndi
en nder duu i joy, faatunde e hiisiwal. Ndee¡oo ÑOGGANNDE
SILO HIISIWO ko deftere faatunde he hiisiwal toowngal, jan-
ngeteengal he nder du¡e jaa i-haa¡tirde, to¡¡ingal jade luggere
hiisa caltiwa e ki iwa. Ine hasii, so hiisiwal haalaama, hakkil-
laaji miijoo ganndal urngal luggi¡de e fortaade. Kono, hoto
ngo¡¡oyen, sibu hiisiwal ine allii nguurndam aadee no feewi,
nde tawnoo alaa fannu nguurndam e sewlo mo soomaani ngal.
um noon, amtaare ne¡¡o e renndooji hannde aa notaako gaa
gaa margol hiisiwal. He nder heen, ngam hu indaade ngal tigi-
rigi, alaa e sago jade maggal rewra e ¡emngal ngal ne¡¡o uri
waawde, hono ¡emngal mum neeniwal. Ndeke, ndee deftere hes-
ere kadi, winndiraa ko haa newnana haaloo e Pulaar fof paam-
gol hiisiwal toowngal, huunde sa¡tunde he nder ¡emngal ko¡al
wonande janngoowo oo. Hay gooto waawaa etde nafoore defte
Muhammadu Faalil Sih ¡i¡i gadane ¡ee wonande, ko adii fof,
¡emngal Pulaar e ¡em¡e ngenndiije ¡ee fof, sibu ¡um addanii
yim e heew e faamde wonde hay ganndal hiisiwal toowngal ine
waawi jannginireede ¡emngal Pulaar, sikkatnoo e ganndal jann-
girtoo tan ko ¡em¡e tuubakoo e, ko wayi no Farayse, walla En-
gele. He ñal¡i diisnondiral paatu¡i e mbayliigu Tippudi Nehdi e
Jade Muritani, ju inanoo¡i e oktoobar e noowammbar 2021,
¡ee defte ngonaniino yahatnoo e toon pelle pinal ¡ee njogitaaje
e njoo aari timmundi, sibu ¡e mballitii e famminde huunde e
tawtoraa e ee, tolno golle ba¡aa¡e he nder ¡em¡e ngenndi-
ije ¡ee, e kattangol majje tammbaade gannde ¡ee fof, no arab
nii, no Farayse nii. Jooni kadi, ndee¡oo deftere ari ko teetinde
dallinannde laaw¡ingol e naattingol ¡em¡e ngenndiije he nder
Tippule Nehdi e Jade leydi ndii. Ko huunde hatojinanoonde
sibu, ine jeyaa haa hannde e ca¡eele men, famminde janngirnoo e
¡emngal Farayse (e ko uri teetude), wonde ¡em¡e men ¡ee
ina mbaawi tigi roondanaade denndaangal gannde good¡e ¡ee.
Mi waawaa noon waasde siftinde en wonde ko Booñ Winndereejo
(banke moñnjaal) haali heen koo : So sukaa e pu¡¡oriima jade
he nder ¡emngal ngal paamata, ko ndeen e urata dañde gan-
ndal, ko ndeen e urata waawde ¡em¡e go¡¡e, ko ndeen e
urata ellitaade he nder fannuuji go¡¡i, ko wayi no hiisiwal e
siyaas (nganndiwe), ko ndeen e urata hattande jokkude jade
ma e, ko ndeen kadi e ke ata jade yahdunde e pinal ma e
kam e ngonka nokkuuji ma e. . . Ndeen jade ine usta fer-
eeje leydi ferotoo he almuudo kala, e nder ¡uum, ina addana
leydi mo¯¯inde kuutoragol ngaluuji mum haa waawa yaajtinde
ke agol nehdi e jade mo¯¯iri wonande sukaa e fof. Gaa gaa
ballitgol dallinde kattan¡e ¡em¡e ¡ee, faayiida ¡immo ¡ee defte
ko kimmugol golle ¡ee e koye mum en : hannde, so ¡em¡e
ee pellitaama jannginireede hiisiwal he nder du¡e hakkundeeje
walla jaa i-haa¡tirde, e¡en mbaawi wiyde, ko fam¡i fof, feccere
e golle ¡ee wa¡aama, haa teeti noon to bannge wi¡to e paggagol
kelmeendi hiisiwal. Ndaa ¡ee golle ¡e hay laamu ngootu heedaani
en, ¡e hay laamu ngootu waawaa ha¡de en wa¡de, en potaani
fadtirde ¡um en hay gooto, sibu ko ge¡e ¡e mbaaw-¡en wa¡ande
koye men, sibu ko gannde gon¡e he ngaandiije men (koye men), ¡e
paggi-¡en. Keewgol defte binndaa¡e he ¡emngal ine jogii ba¡te
maw¡e he ¯ellitaare ngaal ¡emngal. Ko dañande ngaal ¡emngal
loowdi ñikloori janngoo e sibu maa mbaaw faggaade heen gan-
ndal. Tee so yollaama kadi he enternet, kuutoragol mum uri kadi
newaade e yaawde. Kala ko ne¡¡o ¡a iri yiylorde, ko wayi no
Ceerno Google , maa yaltinan ¡um he nder heltere le¯¯an-
nde, soklaani likñitde defter¡i walla yiylaade hello, e sunnaade
binndi ekn. E¡en njogii anndu e heew e e fannuuji gannde ¡ee
kala. So gooto fof winnduno ganndal mum he nder ¡emngal Pu-
laar, maa ¡uum eydatno wallitde en famminde e paamaani haa
hannde ee, e suusnude laamuuji ¡ii wa¡de ja¡eele ¡ee he nder
¡em¡e neeniije ley¡eele mum en. Muhammadu F. Sih rokkii ¡oo
yim e e nganndaano, fartae humpitaade ganndal luggal he
nder ¡emngal Pulaar, o rokkii anndunoo e fartae siftorde e
luggi¡inaade he ngal¡oo ganndal. O dallinii kadi wonde, ¡em-
ngal Pulaar ngal, nde tawnoo ko ¡emngal pelle, ina hattani, tee
ine newii faccirirde miijane hiisiwal. ee defte tati ko waalaare
timmunde he nder golle dallinannde ummanaande hannde ¡ee !
Bookara Aamadu Bah,
Hiisiweejo, Hooreejo Fedde amtaare Pulaar Muritani.
Mot de l'auteur
Depuis les indépendances, un probléme fondamental reste sus-
pendu au c÷ur des systèmes éducatifs des pays africains: l'utilisation
des langues africaines dans l'acquisition des connaissances. Le
système que le continent a connu durant la colonisation avait
pour objectif principal de produire des auxiliaires et cadres pou-
vant intégrer l'administration. Il n'est nul besoin de rappeler
que ce système n'avait aucunement le but de former des esprits
intellectuellement et scienti quement quali és a même d'agir en
matres du développement culturel, politique, technique et sci-
enti que de leurs sociétés respectives; une telle politique éduca-
tive serait en eet synonyme d'une programmation d'une future
implosion du système colonial lui-même. La rupture au niveau
de ces objectifs d'éducation occasionnée par l'avènement des in-
dépendances n'a malheureusement pas été accompagnée d'une
profonde transformation du système éducatif colonial; en partic-
ulier, la langue d'éducation est restée la même imposant ainsi une
sélection drastique et injusti ée aux élèves a la porte d'accès aux
disciplines scienti ques. Il s'est ensuivi une discordance entre les
besoins suscités par les dé s multiples des pays nouvellement in-
dépendants et le résultat de leurs systèmes de formation en terme
de quali cation de leurs cadres supérieurs, tout aussi qualitative-
ment que quantitativement. Malgré les voix d'intellectuels comme
Dr. Cheikh Anta Diop et des mouvements militants, la politique
africaine globale reste extrêmement timide et souvent ne mon-
tre aucun intérêt sérieux vis-a-vis de cette question. Les langues
africaines ayant acquis une dévaluation grave du fait des faits com-
binés d'une fossilisation résultant de leur abandon par la structure
`culturalisante' et de l'imposition des forces culturelles externes,
se retrouvent dans un cercle vicieux ou les causes se confondent
aux conséquences; taxées d'incapacités de la chose scienti que sur
laquelle on les empêche pourtant de discourir, juste en les exclu-
ant systématiquement de ce domaine. Le décideur africain n'a
pas l'air de voir qu'en excluant sa langue du domaine du savoir,
ce sont ses outils cognitifs qu'il ébréche, c'est son expression cul-
turelle qu'il étoue; il n'a pas l'air d'être au courant que, par
son acte, il obstrue la propagation a grande échelle des connais-
sances dans sa société. On se retrouve alors dans un cercle vicieux
ou les cultures et les langues maternelles, atouts d'excellence éd-
ucative de toute société développée, deviennent de plus en plus
isolées de notre éducation, et donc de nos stratégies de développe-
ment. Ou les valeurs de l'éducation sont pour la plupart satis-
faites par la seule matrise de la langue étrangère au détriment
de la valorisation de l'acquisition des connaissances disciplinaires.
C'est bien a la brisure de ce cercle vicieux que s'attelle ce projet
d'intégration des sciences les plus avancées et de leurs concepts
pointus dans le corpus des langues africaines. A côté de l'intérêt
urgent d'une production diversi ée, il s'agit aussi de montrer par
l'acte que l'hypothèse d'impossibilité longtemps théorisée est au
mieux scienti quement inavisée, et au pire intellectuellement mal-
honnête. Car cette hypothèse a grandement participé a nuire
a la con ance en soi culturelle essentielle a l'épanouissement de
tout peuple. Il s'agit de déployer les sentiers de la connaissance
scienti que dans la forêt de nos langues, de le faire dans un re-
spectueux prolongement de la structure épistémographique intrin-
sèque a ces langues, ayant longtemps supporté diverses pratiques
scienti ques, vers l'horizon des connaissances modernes. Ainsi les
caractéristiques techniques des langues ont un rôle primordial a y
jouer. Par exemple, la tendance des classes nominales a organiser
l'univers selon les propriétés des objets et des images représen-
tées est vue comme un avantage monumental a exploiter dans
la désignation des objets mathématiques et physiques. Un béné-
ce au niveau du développement de l'intuition des phénomènes,
donc de leur connaissance presque tactile, est espéré. Ceci est
un exemple parmi d'autres qui change complètement la perspec-
tive quant a la question de l'utilisation des langues africaines.
En eet, non seulement la théorisation de l'impossibilité est bal-
ayée de la scène scienti que - même si elle est encore forte sur la
scène politique - par diérents travaux concrets, il est maintenant
question d'une puissance scienti que que leurs structures intimes
mettent a la disposition de l'apprenant et du chercheur. Donc on
passe d'incapacité théorisée a la capacité insoupçonnée. Dans cet
exposé, nous parcourons des objets et concepts mathématiques
essentiellement vus au supérieur et les intégrons dans la langue
Pulaar-Fulfulde. Ces objets et concepts sont de ns outils dont
l'analyste mathématicien use quotidiennement dans la résolution
de problèmes divers, y compris des questions appliquées. Ils sont
aussi la base d'un développement expert dans ce domaine. Nos
précédentes productions sur ce sujet (2016, 2019) ont pu en ex-
poser le détail des préréquis; le lecteur en di culté y est renvoyé.
Loowdi deftere ndee
1 Naatirde 19
1.1 Silo hiisiwo : faandaare, ka ir¡e . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2 Yeruuji ju i e nafooje mumen . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2.1 Heewpayi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2.2 Jowi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2.3 Jowti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3 Hol ko deftere ndee loowi? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Kelmeendi e Tonngir¡e 27
2.1 Kelmeendi (Terminologie) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2 Tonngir¡e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3 Rewriwal e kuu e 39
3.1 Rewriwal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2 Miijanteeri kuu e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Ju i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
15
4 Pote e ur ure 61
5 Ju i 67
5.1 Yeruuji gadani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 To e teskin¡e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3 Joo r¡e e jokkolingol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4 Caltal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.5 Jowol sewliwol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.6 Ki al Riemann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.7 Jowtol Neper (sewliwol) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6 Dogge 123
6.1 Dogge limoreeje . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7 Callaleeje 143
7.1 Callaleeje limeweeje . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.1.1 Koolkisi ¯eewndor¡i sewlo sallaleere . . . . 150
7.2 Callaleeje payan¡eweeje . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.2.1 Laabi kiisor¡i wudduwol joofgol . . . . . . . 155
7.3 Callaleeje ju i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.3.1 Dogge ju i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.3.2 Callaleeje ju i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.4 Callaleeje Fourier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8 Ki al Lebesgue 167
8.1 Ju i etotoo¡i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.2 etirgal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.3 Ki al Lebesgue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.3.1 Dallinaa¡e diiñor¡e . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.3.2 Ju i ganndiniraa¡i ki e . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.3.3 Boowe Lebesgue, L p . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
8.3.4 etir¡e jokkoline pawtarol . . . . . . . . . 183
8.3.5 Dallinaande Fubini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Damal 1
Naatirde
1.1 Silo hiisiwo : faandaare, ka ir¡e
Silo hiisiwo wonaa tan lowre e nder hiisa, kono ko ngo ngesa
yaajmba loowmba lowe limtin¡e. E¡en mbaawi limtude : Silo
yu iwo, silo limeewo, silo hasriwo, hiisa wayliwa; ngam tan nokkude
heen jeyaa¡e e ur¡e darjude ¡ee. E¡en mbaawi laa ndaade hol
to nguu ngalu fof iwri, hol ko saabii ndee heewandere. Ko adii
fof, silo, caggal nde Newton e Leibniz mba¡i jiytule pattamlame
mumen nder temre 17-18 ere, he ii kaalki mum hiisiwi ngar-
duki e ¡emngal jumtungal. Gila sahaaji ganniwi, hiisiwee e ina
mba¡dannoo e gaggaaji siliwi; en njuutninooma e gagga jiytu-
gol wertallo mbe¡u, nder deftere men "Gannde Hiisiwe" (damal
Nok etiwal). En nji'iino hol feere yumtunde nde Archimede naat-
tinnoo ngam adoraade ngoon wertallo bertalle cawdare cu aa¡e.
19
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 1. NAATIRDE
Won ko maantinii feeñi ¡oon, hono ¡owol adal1 . Won go¡¡um
kadi teskini ¡oon, ko laa ndal ngal e hoore mum; hono hiisa wer-
tallo, jogorka miijtoyeede nder ka ir¡e cee ¡e garoyooje biya-
tee¡e ki e. Newton e Leibniz, mo woni heen fof bae mum, ta i
maandoore "caltal", ngal pattamlamal garngal nootaande kimmi-
raa¡e bay¡e no hiisa njaaweeki walla harto, jiytugol to e pekko-
r¡e kofol maa daa¯or¡e mum, dallingol kuule aa¯o. Lewlawal
ganndal mawngal yayniima nde Newton e Leibniz paami wonde
ndee maandoore hesere wiyateende Caltal ndeke ko baklital ki al
kuutorteengal gila jamanuuji limtin¡i. oo jotondiral hakkunde
maandooje wa¡ii, etee mo humpitii ¡een ina anndi baawal pat-
tamfaamuwal ngal ¡e ndoondotoo. Kono ¡oo ko fu¡¡oode tan.
Sabu tawaama, ko yaawi caggal ¡um, wonde alliwal ina tonngoo
e ballal ¡ee maandooje. Potindire ceertiwe e potindire calte keer-
i¡e ngontii tonngi cee ¡e kuule faru ¡ee. Wadde silo kuule faru,
¡e ndewindto-¡en haa ¯oogen gannde ur¡e luggi¡de, rewata
hanti ko e silo hiisiwo. Kala kuulal ko fotindirki, kala doosgal
feeñrata ko e mbaadi potal maa ur ural hakkunde maandooje
hiisiwe, kala yakawere tonngaa ko e ñoggal. Gila peceron kon
pamaram mumen ha¡i hakkillaaji mehi faamande ¡um haydara,
haa e ge¡e maw¡e faru2 nduu (koode, lillu¡e koode, haa arti
e faru ¯eewotoongu), ko potindire hiisiwe ¡e majjaa¡e mumen
ngoni ju i, ju nooje, eere, ete, ngoni ndaarir¡e sewlo3 ngoo.
1 adal = (approximation, approximation)
2 Faru = (univers, universe)
3 Sewlo = (nature, nature)
20
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 1.2. YERUUJI JUI E NAFOOJE MUMEN
1.2 Yeruuji ju i e nafooje mumen
Ju i ko loowre mawnde nder deftere hee. Faayiida majji ina
heewi, ciyni majji ko taccam-keeriwi nder ganndiwe4 . Ma en
ndokku ¡oo heen yeruuji see¡a, e see¡a e kuutorogol mumen.
1.2.1 Heewpayi
Heewpayol5 ko ju ol6 j ciforingol ndaa-nii:
j (w) = an wn + an−1 wn−1 + · · · a1 w + a0 .
Wadde ko ¡um pawondiral payan¡e. Heewpayi ina teskini e
yakuuji keew¡i. E¡en mbaawi tan limtude kuulal Newton aa¯i-
wal, cifotoongal hol no ñise ¡i¡e aa¯ondirta he nder weeyo.
Ngaal ina huutoroo baklital fayannde ¡i¡mere yolnde hakkunde
¡een ñise aa¯ondirooje. Ko hono noon ne kuulal Coulomb hi-
isortoo semmbe yiiteewo7 hakkunde donle ¡i¡e yiiteweeje.
1.2.2 Jowi
Ju ol jowol ngol diiñorde a ko ganndinirteengol hono nii:
j ( w ) = aw .
4 Ganndiwal = (science, science)
5 Heewpayol = (polynôme, polynomial)
6 Ju ol = (fonction, function)
7 Semmbe yiiteewo = (force électrique, electric force)
21
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 1. NAATIRDE
Wadde ngol yowat waylotoonde8 ndee, hono w. E¡en mbaawi
wiyde ju ol jowol ko kala ju ol baylowol eydal wa¡ta ¡um
cowal:
j (w + y) = aw+y = aw × ay = j (w) × j (y).
Ndeen noon ko ¡um ju ol teskorteengol njaaweeki fakitki ey-
dogol mum. Faayidaaji maggol hiisiwi ina poo¡ondira daraja e
faayidaaji alliwi ¡ii. Ko feewti e yakuuji sewliwi9 , ju i jowi
ngasataa huutoreede! E¡en mbaawi heen limtude :
• Yirwere esnguwere: Yeñre nder renndo ina ¡owondira e
keeweendi goodateewon renndo ngoo. Mbaylaandi ndii hawrata
ko e caltal ju ol j (t ) dokkowol keeweendi renndo ngoo e
tuma t . So piytirgel yeñre ndee wonii κ , oon sahaa he ee:
j′ = κ j.
To bae nano too, ina jogaa j′ hono mbaylaandi ndii. To
ñaamo too ina jogaa κ j wona, ko ndi hawrata so ndi arti-
raama e keeweendi renndo hee. um noon, hono no njogor-
¡en yiyrude e damal ju i, rokkata ko
j (t ) = j (0)at tawa a = eκ .
Hawra e ju ol jowol.
8 Waylotoonde = (variable, variable or argument)
9 Fiyaaku sewliiwu = (phénomène naturel, natural phenomenon)
22
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 1.2. YERUUJI JUI E NAFOOJE MUMEN
• Wukkitamcaafaagu10 : Ina wa¡i gaalu¡e mitte11 ¡e ndee¯-
taani, baylotoo¡e, ina ngukkitiyaha pecoron12 walla caafe
yiitesul¡iwe13 . So en ¯ettii esngu kuuje mawnasmbiñeengu1415 ,
dow annde tuma ∆t , ma en taw keeweendi gaalu¡e kujii¡e16
¡ee ina hisni ngal-¡oo potal:
∆K (t )
= λ K (t ).
∆t
um noon tiindata en ko to ju ol jowol gonowol roore
potal ngal.
1.2.3 Jowti
Jowti ko baklite jowi. Kala to jowol yowi, ko jowtol yowtata. To
jowol waylata eydal wa¡ta ¡um cowal, jowtol waylat ¡oon cowal
wa¡ta ¡um eydal. To jowol yaawi haa fakiti, jowtol taa¡at
¡oon, to jowol ajji kofol mum, jowtol hippat ¡oon kofol mum.
Jowti naattinanooma ngam wee tinde hiisaaji ganndiwal weeyi-
wal. Kono kadi, e¡en mbaawi limtude ¡ii-¡oo fannuuji kuutoro-
gol:
10 Wukkitamcaafaagu = (radioactivité, radioactivity)
11 aaludere mittere = (noyau atomique, atomic nucleus)
12 Pecorel = (particule, particle)
13 Caafal yiitesul¡iwal = (rayonnement électromagnétique, electromagnetic
radiation)
14 Mawnasmbiñi¡um = (macroscopique, macroscopic)
15 Pamarmbiñi¡um = (microscopique, microscopic)
16 Hujo = (désintégration, disintegration)
23
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 1. NAATIRDE
• Dillere leydi (tugadaawo17 Richter): So T0 wonii toowre18
bempe¯ol goowangol, T wonii nde bempe¯ol dillere seedaande
(ummiinde e jakawe ¡e ka ir¡e etata), so en nji¡ii an-
ndude hol mawnere dillere ndee, maa mbiyen Tugadaawo
Richter mayre, en kuutorto jowtol, kiiso¡en:
T
R = log .
T0
• Tolnooji hito ina ndewindoree wootannde innateende "de-
sibel", tonngee dB. Nde hiisortee ko jowtol sappiwol, hono
ndaa-nii:
B
1dB = 10 log ,
B0
¡o B woni baawal hito etateengo ngoo, B0 wona baawal
pamareewal goowangal.
um ko see¡a e ju i paayodin¡i good¡i, ¡i kuutorogol mum
yawti ¡oo no feewi. En cu i ¡oo tan yeruuji see¡a ngam lon-
nginde taroowo oo nafoore anndude ju i e silo mumen.
1.3 Hol ko deftere ndee loowi?
Caggal doggol kelmeendi (Pulaar-Français-English), ko adii fof,
en kollitat diiñorde miijo hiisiwo hono rewriwal e miijanteeri ku-
17 Tugadaawo = (échelle, scale)
18 Toowre = (amplitude, amplitude)
24
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 1.3. HOL KO DEFTERE NDEE LOOWI?
u e. Caggal ¡um maa damal ar ngam wee¡de ekkor¡e coftin-
dor¡e ko adii nde yim e ina njaa ana ju i. Nder damal ju i,
maa mahanteeje pattamlame naatne (caltal, jowol, ki al, jowtol,
ekn.). Caggal ¡um dogge ngara, yim e ndewna heen callaleeje19 .
Ngoortoro-¡en ki al Lebesgue jiyateengal hitaande tata ere jaa i-
haa¡tirde. Yoga e deftere ndee, so yawtii ciftinooje, ko loowdi
du¡e toow¡e.
19 Sallaleere = (série, series)
25
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 1. NAATIRDE
26
27
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 2. KELMEENDI E TONNGIRE
Damal 2
Kelmeendi e Tonngir¡e
2.1 Kelmeendi (Terminologie, Terminology)
Pulaar Français English
aa¯o gravitation gravitation
adal approximation approximation
amtal développement expansion
etal norme norm
etirgal mesure measure
ur ural inégalité inequality
esa-joofgol semi-convergence semi-convergence
i¡indirki dualité duality
owol méthode method
Ñisre masse mass
Ñoggal formule formula
akkawol ellipse ellipse
eewal observation observation
28
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 2.1. KELMEENDI (TERMINOLOGIE)
u eeri stimulus stimulus
Alaa-fuunti faux négatif false negative
Anndinoore dé nition de nition
Artere fréquence frequency
Ba¡te conséquence consequence
Baasal diérence ensembliste dierence of sets
Baasondiral diérence symétrique symmetric dierence
Boowal etiwal espace normé normed space
Boowal jolliwal espace métrique metric space
Boowal joopiwal espace vectoriel vector space
Boowal nokkiwiwal espace topologique topological space
Boreliwal Borelien Borel set
Cakkol prémisse premise
Caltal dérivée derivative
Caltal ¡immal dérivée seconde second derivative
Cawdaral rectangle rectangle
Cawpotal parallelogramme parallelogram
Ceedtal con rmation con rmation
Co etiwal trigonométrie trigonometry
Cowal karteesiwal produit cartésien cartesian product
Cowal nderiwal produit scalaire inner product
Cukkol densité density
Daawal période period
Dalliilu preuve proof
Dallinaande théroème theorem
Denndal intersection intersection
Denndaral disjonction disjunction
Denrentiwal statistiques statistics
Dental union union
Diwtawol hyperbole hyperbola
Doggal suite sequence
29
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 2. KELMEENDI E TONNGIRE
Doggal joofowal suite converente converging sequence
Doggal jooftaral suite divergente diverging sequence
Doggal nok etiwal suite géométrique geometric sequence
Doosgal wowre principe de parcimonie pacimony principle
Doosgal jemmondiral principe d'équivalence equivalence principle
Doosgal pamaral ba¡al principe de moindre action least action principle
Doosgal yowito principe de relativité relativity principle
Doosre postulat postulate
Duñruñtere récurrence induction
E ¡oftondiral respectivement respectively
Eey-fuunti faux positif false positive
Famarde hoddiwere minimum local local minimum
Famaweere minimal minimal
Faru univers universe
Faruwum universel universal
Fawre condition condition
Fawre wa¡¡iinde condition nécessaire necessary condition
Fawre yonnde condition su sante su cient condition
Fayannde puissance power
Fedde jemmondiral classe d'équivalence equivalence class
Fotindirki équation equation
Funo Une paire a pair
Gaa e probabilités probability
Gaddere garantie guarantee
Gaditingol primitive antidérivative
Ganndiwal science science
Ganndiweejo scienti que scientist
30
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 2.1. KELMEENDI (TERMINOLOGIE)
Hakindo moyenne average
Hakkundeere médiane median
Harto accélération acceleration
Hasiinde cas case
Hasiinde heeriinde cas particulier especial case
Hasre hasard chance
Heewpayol polynôme polynomial
Hinnde tribu sigma algebra
Hinnde Borel tribu borelienne Borel sigma algebra
Hisindaade raisonner to reason
Hollinaare déterminisme determinism
Hujja argument argument
Ittiri dimension dimension
Iwre antécédant input, argument
Jaa¯re image output
Jarriboore expérience experiment
Jarriboore miijo expérience de pensée thought experiment
Jemmondiral équivalence equivalence
Jokkol rewriwol connecteur logique logical connective
Jollogol inclusion inclusion
Jollol distance distance
Joo¡torde hypothèse hypothesis
Joofannde Indication hint
Joofgol etol convergence normale normal convergence
Joofgol bee ngol convergence simple simple convergence
Joofgol pawtarol convergence absolue absolute convergence
Joofgol wootmbaadiwol convergence uniforme uniform convergence
Joo rde limite limit
31
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 2. KELMEENDI E TONNGIRE
Joo rde dowrowre limite supérieure limit superior
Joo rde lesre limite inférieure limit inferior
Joopol vecteur vector
Jowol sewliwol exponentielle naturelle natural
Jowtol logarithme logarithm
Ju ol fonction function
Ju ol etotoongol fonction mesurable measurable function
Ju ol abbitarol fonction décroissante non-increasing function
Ju ol abbiwol fonc. strictement croissante increasing function
Ju ol jokkolinol fonction continue continuous function
ju ol co¡ol fonction injective one-to-one function
Ju ol cuddol fonction surjective onto function
Ju ol daaw¡inol fonction périodique periodic function
Ju ol gootwootol fonction bijective bijective function
Ju ol jippitarol fonction croissante non-decreasing function
Ju ol jippiwol fonc. strictement décroissante decreasing function
Ju ol jowol fonction exponentielle exponential function
Ju ol tugadaarewol fonction en escalier step function
Kaa¡taral l'in ni in nity
Kaalki langage language
Kabrol information information
Kanndal dowrowal borne supérieure upper bound
Kanndal lesal borne inférieure lower bound
Kaynal projection projection
Kebbito complément complement
Ki al intégrale integral
32
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 2.1. KELMEENDI (TERMINOLOGIE)
Kisindol waas-aa no raisonnement par l'absurde contradiction argument
Kisindol raisonnement reasoning
Kisindol duñruñtere raisonnement par récurrence induction argument
Koddiwal voisinage neighborhood
Kofol courbe curve, graph
Kuu al ensemble set
Kuu al cukkulal ensemble compact compact set
Kuu al guddingal ensemble fermé closed set
Kuu al gudditiingal ensemble ouvert open set
Kuu e denndare ensembles disjoints disjoint sets
Laatre fait fact
Les-kuu al sous-ensemble subset
Limal chire digit
Limoral nombre number
Limoral eydal nombre sctrictement positif positive number
Limoral eydaral nombre négatif non-positive number
Limoral jeral nombre rationnel rational number
Limoral jertoral nombre irrationnel irrational number
Limoral jil al nombre complexe complex number
Limoral ki al nombre entier integer
Ki al sewliwal entier naturel natural number
Limoral laa ngal nombre réel real number
Limoral ustaral nombre positif non-negative number
Limtiwal dénombrement counting
Liomral ustal nombe strictement négatif negative number
Loal accolade bracket
Lomlomtaagu commutativité commutativity
Lowre domaine domain
33
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 2. KELMEENDI E TONNGIRE
Lutndo-yeru contre-exemple counterexample
Maandoore concept concept
Maral propriété property
Mawnasre hoddiwere maximum local local maximum
Mawniweere maximal maximal
Miijanteeri théorie theory
Nawdawol parabole parabola
Nay oore quartile quartile
Ndig¡ude s'annuler to vanish
Ngartordi corollaire corollary
Njiytudi découverte discovery
Nok etiwal géométrie geometry
Nok etiwal caltewal géométrie diérentielle dierential geometry
Nokkiwal topologie topology
Nootol réciproque converse
Pataral histogramme histogram
Potal égalité equality
Puniter¡ere binomiale binomial
Reggannde factorielle factorial
Rewriwal logique logic
Rokkere donnée data
Ruttinere rétroaction feedback
Sallaleere série series
Sallaleere limeweere série numérique numerical series
Sallaleere sañreweere série harmonique harmonic series
Sallareere payan¡eweere seérie entière power series
Se itere hoddiwere extremum local local extremum
Sewlo nature nature
Siinde fawtarnde valeur absolue absolute value
Tawtawtaagu associativité associativity
34
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 2.1. KELMEENDI (TERMINOLOGIE)
To ere ñukornde valeur d'adhérence accumulation point
To ere daa¯ornde point stationnaire stationary point
To ere fekkornde point critique critical point
To ere waklitorde point d'in exion in ection point
Tommbere prévision prediction
Tonngere conclusion conclusion
Tugadaare escalier stair
Tugadaawo échelle scale
Tuugre axiome axiom
Uulordi lemme lemma
Waho pente slope
Waylindo variance variance
Waylotoonde variable variable
Waylotoonde etindeere variable quantitative quantitative variable
Waylotoonde sifaweere variable qualitative qualitative variable
Wertallo aire area
Wonde puniwum être pair to be even
Wonde puntarum être impair to be odd
Wooro-woowngo écart-type standard deviation
Wudduwol joofgol rayon de convergence radius of convergence
Yakawere énergie energy
Yawtinere déduction deduction
Yerindo rapport ration
Yirwere dynamique dynamics
Yowitingol conditionnement conditioning
Yu noore application map
35
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 2. KELMEENDI E TONNGIRE
2.2 Tonngir¡e
Alkule les-¡oo ¡ee ina kuutoree no feewi haa hanti ¡e njeyaama e pinal
hiisiwiwal. Ma en kuutoro huunde e majje ngam newnude taro ngoo
wonande janngu e hiisiwal e ¡em¡e go¡¡e, e wonande kadi jogor e
janngoyde ngal e ¡em¡e go¡¡e:
Alkulal mawngal Alkulal tokosal Wowlaango Iwdi
α alfaa Grek
β betaa Grek
Γ γ gamaa Grek
Θ θ tetaa Grek
Λ λ lambdaa Grek
Σ σ sigmaa Grek
Π π pii Grek
∆ δ deltaa Grek
ε epsilon Grek
Φ φ i Grek
Ψ ψ ipsii Grek
Ξ ξ iksii Grek
ζ setaa Grek
η etaa Grek
ρ roo Grek
µ mu Grek
ν nu Grek
Ω ω omegaa Grek
• N ko kuu al limoreeje ki e sewliwe1 ;
1 Ki al sewliwal = (entier natural, natural number)
36
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 2.2. TONNGIRE
• N∗ ko kuu al ki e sewliwe ¡awangal 0
• Z ko kuu al ki e
• Q ko kuu al limoreeje jere2
• R ko kuu al limoreeje laa ¡e3 : loowi ko jere e jertare4
• C ko kuu al limoreeje jil e5
2 Limoral jeral = (nombre rationnel, rational number)
3 Limoral laa ngal = (nombre réel, real number)
4 Limoral jertaral = (nombre irrationnel, irrational number)
5 Limoral jil al = (nombre complexe, complex number)
37
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 2. KELMEENDI E TONNGIRE
38
Damal 3
Rewriwal e kuu e
39
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 3. REWRIWAL E KUUE
3.1 Rewriwal
Teskuya 1.1
Woni faandaare Rewriwal ko hiisaade goongaagu konngi e
dartogol kisindia . Kiisor¡e kaan hiisa ko ¡ee-¡oo:
∨ (janngata ko "walla" maa "so ¡um alaa")
∧ (janngata ko "e'kadi”)
¬ (janngata ko "lutndii")
⇒ (janngata ko "wadde" maa "yeñtini").
a Kisindol = (raisonnement, reasoning)
Hiisorde ∨ ndee rentinat; so tawii A wonii konngol, B wonii kon-
ngol go¡ngol, rento majji winndee A ∨ B. E yeru so A wonii kon-
ngol "Ulluundu U nduu ko aleeru", B wonii "Ulluundu U nduu
ko njadduru". Oon saanga A ∨ B wona "Ulluundu U nduu ko
aleeru walla ko ndu njadduru".
Hiisorde ∧ ndee rendinat, so kannde huutoranoo e yeru ennu¡o
oo, A ∧ B wonata ko "Ulluundu U nduu ko ndu aleeru e'kadi ko
ndu njadduru".
Lutndo A winndatee ko ¬A, hawra "Ulluundu nduu wonaa aleeru".
A ⇒ B wona "Ulluundu U nduu ko aleeru yeñtini ko ndu njad-
duru" walla "Ulluundu U nduu ko aleeru wadde ko ndu njad-
duru".
40
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 3.1. REWRIWAL
Anndinoore 1.1
Yoo K won konngol. K ina waawi jarde wootu e ¡ii ¡i¡i:
K wona goonga, so ronkii K wona fenaande. Ko ko K jari
heen koo wiyatee njaru K , winndee Nj(K ). Goonga noon ina
tonngiree 1, fenaande tonngiree 0. um wa¡i so K wonii
goonga, winndee
Nj(K ) = 1.
Dallinaande 1.1
So K woni konngol, oon saanga
Nj(K ∨ K̄ ) = 1
Nj(K ∧ K̄ ) = 0
Dallinaande 1.2
So A e B ngonii konngi,
¬(A ⇒ B) = A ∧ ¬B.
um woni: Lutndo konngol "A wonii wadde B wonat" ko
konngol "A wonii e'kadi B wonaani".
41
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 3. REWRIWAL E KUUE
Dallinaande 1.3
So tawii ina selli wonde
A ⇒ B,
ngaan saanga sellat wonde
¬B ⇒ ¬A.
Aljaaburu Boole ina huutoree ngam hiisaade konngi. Kuule
mayru ina mbee i, ndu hawrodinat ∨ e hiisorde + ndee, ndu
hawrina ∧ e ×.
E yeru, so A e B ngonii konngi, oon tuma
Nj(A ∨ B) = Nj(A) + Nj(B) (3.1)
Nj(A ∧ B) = Nj(A) × Nj(B). (3.2)
Ina faamoo wonde
1 + 1 = 1,
sabu ko njaru "goonga walla goonga", ¡um noon hawrata ko e
goonga, woni ka njaru 1.
Tigilde goonga ko feere huutorteende ngam mahde dalillaaji.
E yeru eto¡en hujjinde ndee ¡oo dallinaande
42
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 3.2. MIIJANTEERI KUUE
Dallinaande 1.4
So A e B ngonii konngi, ina hisi wonnde
A ⇒ B = B ∨ (¬A),
¬(A ⇒ B) = A ∧ (¬B).
Ndalliniren nde tigilde aroore les ndee:
A B ¬A ¬B B ∨ ¬A A⇒B A ∧ ¬B
1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0
Natre 3.1: Tigilde goonga. Nde ¯etti ko njaruuji goongaagu
baaw¡e woodde hakkunde konngi diiñor¡i ¡i¡i A e B, nde rokka
njaruuji kawrooji heen wonande konngi tuugii¡i e A e B. Kala
heen ¡i dari2 mumen nanndu njaruuji (loowdi) ko jemmondiri:
¡iin potata goongaagu e kala sahaa, kala heen ¡o gootol goong¡i
walla fen¡i go¡ngol ngol ko noon wayata.
3.2 Miijanteeri kuu e
43
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 3. REWRIWAL E KUUE
Anndinoore 2.1
Ene wiyee kuu ala kala moo annde nge¡on nootikon won e
sifa cu aa¡o ko aditii.
a Kuu al = (ensemble, set)
E¡en njogii ¡ii yeruuji:
• So en njuurniima kuu al limoreeje ki e3 lombii¡e
hakkunde 2 et 6 ko {3, 4, 5}. Tesko¡ee lombu-¡en limoreeje
cos¡e kuu al ngal ko hakkunde loe4 ¡i¡i: udditowal {
e uddowal }. Ko hono nii mbinndirten kala nge¡on kala
kuu al. En paamii wonde, e yeru, 3 wiyetee ko ge¡el (e
nder) kuu al ngal. Kono kadi rokkude kuu al ngal innde ina
nafta, mbiyen ngal A e yeru. E¡en mbaawi wadde winndude
A = {3, 4, 5}.
Jooni e¡en mbaawi wiyde 3 ko gedel e nder A, malla 3
jeyaa ko e A. ii-¡oo konngu¡i fof ko jemmondir¡i5 , e¡i
njogii binndol majji e `hiisankoore', woni:
3 ∈ A.
3 Limoral ki al =(nombre entier, integer)
4 Loal = (accolade, bracket)
5 Jemmondirde = (être équivalent, to be equivalent)
44
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 3.2. MIIJANTEERI KUUE
• Jooni noon, so en nji¡ii limtude limoreeje ki e hakkunde
2 e 3, hay dara en limataa. Sabu limoral ki al alaa ¡oon!
Kono kuu al ¡een ge¡e ¡e ngoondaani ina hatojinaa e gol-
lal. Ngal-¡oon kuu al wiyetee ko olum, binndol maggal
e hiisankoore ko ∅. E nder Hiisiwal, nde tawnoo, kala ko
yi¡aa laatoo foti ko dallineede. Ñeeñe keew¡e ina cañee
ngam muu¡um. Ina e majje hollirde wonde ge¡el jeyaa
ko e olum, so yi¡aama dallineede wonde ngel-¡oon ge¡el
woodaani!
A e B so ngonii kuu e, ene gasa tawa kala ge¡el A, ina tawee
e nder B. E oon sahaa mbiyaten ko "A ko bannge e nder B".
Winndatee ko A ⊂ B.
E¡en nganndi wonde kiisorkon mbaykon no +, −, × maa ÷
ina nju i hakkunde limoreeje. Jooni njiyen hiisa mbaaw-¡en
yu inde hakkunde kuu e.
Ko adii fof, njiyen ko rti potal kuu e ¡i¡i:
Anndinoore 2.2
A e B so ngonii kuu e. Potal A e B rti ko A ko bannge e
nder B, kadi B ko bannge e nder A. Maa mbiyen wonde kala
ge¡el nder A ina tawee e B e'kadi kala ge¡el nderB ina tawee
e A. winndatee ko A = B, ene janngee "A foti e B" walla "A
e B poti". um noon,
A = B ⇔ (A ⊂ B e B ⊂ A).
45
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 3. REWRIWAL E KUUE
Tesko¡en: maande ⇔ ¡isatoo ko hakkunde konngi ¡i¡i jem-
mondiri. um taratee ko "ina jemmondiri e".
Teskuya 2.1
E nder Hiisiwal won dalilaaji nji¡aten wa¡de, ngartoyten ko
e hollude potal kuu e ¡i¡i cu aa¡e no haanirta nii.
Anndinoore 2.3
A e B so ngonii kuu e. Dental A e B hokkata ko kuu al
dentinngal nge¡on A e nge¡on B. Hiisankoore winndata ¡um
ko A ∪ B. um foti janngireede ko "A renti e B".
Yeru 2.4
So tawii A = {a, b, c} e B = {u, w}, wadde
A ∪ B = {a, b, c, u, w}.
Teskuya 2.2
Tesko¡en wonde Dental kuu e ¡i¡i A e B ina waawi siforeede,
e jemmondiral, hono kuu al ngal kala ge¡el mum ummii ko e
46
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 3.2. MIIJANTEERI KUUE
A, walla e B, walla e ¡i¡i ¡ii fof. Ndee ko yiyannde ittunde.
Anndinoore 2.4
A e B so ngonii kuu e. Denndal A e B ko kuu al ngal nge¡on
mum ngoni ge¡e ¡e A renndi e B; woni ge¡e A tawatee¡e kadi
e B. um winndirtee ko A ∩ B, janngata ko "A renndi e B".
Yeru 2.4
So tawii A = {a, b, c} e B = {c, d}, wa¡de
A ∩ B = {c}.
So tawii A = {a, b, } e B = {c, d}, wadde
A ∩ B = ∅.
Anndinoore 2.5
A e B so ngonii kuu e. A, Baasal mum B rti ko ittude e A
kala ge¡e gon¡e e B. Winndatee ko A\B, janngee "A waasi
B" walla "A usti B."
47
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 3. REWRIWAL E KUUE
Yeru 2.4
So tawii A = {a, b, c} e B = {c, d}, wadde
A\B = {a, b}.
Ene laa i wonde A\A ko ∅. Sabu en ngittat e A kala ko
wonnoo e mum, heddoo wadde olum (hono kuu al olal).
Ene laa i kay ne so tawii hay ge¡el B gootel jeyaaka e A, A\B
hawrata ko A, sabu oon sahaa kuu al nge¡on B njeyakon e
A ko olum. Etee ittude olum e A ri ko waasde ittude e A
hay batte, ¡um wa¡i heddotoo tan ko A. Yiyannde wo¡nde
ko wiyde e jemmondiral, A\B rokkata ko ko A jogii tawa B
alaa, ¡um wa¡i so B renndaani e A hay batte wadde kala ko
A jogii B alaa, wadde A\B ko A.
E sifa ennu¡o ¡oo oo, en ci ima no kuu al waasnirtee ku-
u al go¡ngal. Njeñtudi ndii noon faati tan ko e kuu al baasngal
ngal; baasangal ngal kam yejjitaama. Jooni ma en mah hiisorde
wo¡nde ¡e nde wayde noon tawa faati ko e kuu e ¡i¡i ¡ee fof:
Anndinoore 2.6
A e B so ngonii kuu e. Baasondiral hakkunde A e B hokkata
ko kuu al ngal ge¡e mum ko ¡e A ¡e ngalaa e B dentinaa¡e
48
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 3.2. MIIJANTEERI KUUE
e ¡e B ¡e ngalaa e A. Winndatee ko A△B, janngata ko "A
waasondiri e B".
Yeru 2.4
So tawii A = {a, b, c} e B = {c, d}, wadde
A△B = {a, b, d}.
Ene laa i wonde A△A = ∅.
Teskuya 2.3
A e B so ngonii kuu e,
A△B = (A ∪ B)\(A ∩ B).
E konngol, "Baasondiral ko dental baasngal denndal".
Teskuya 2.4
• Dental, Denndal kan e Baasondiral ko kiisor¡e lom-
lomtea . um rti ko
A ∪ B = B ∪ A, A ∩ B = B ∩ A e A△B = B△A.
49
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 3. REWRIWAL E KUUE
Daliilu oo ina wee i sabu ina laa i wonde wiyde A ina
renti e B e wiyde B ina renti e A ko gootum. Den-
ndal ngal ne ko hono noon dallinirtee. So en paami
dalillaaji ¡i kaal-¡en jooni ¡ii, e¡en mbaawi dallinirde
lom-lomtaagal Baasondiral hono nii: Teskuya 3 si ima
Baasondiral e ballal Dental, Baasal e Denndal. Eko
uri laa de Teskuya oo wiyi ko Baasondiral ko Dental
Baasngal Denndal. En ndallinii lom-lomtaagal Dental
e ngal Denndal ngal, kuutoro-¡en ¡um-en ngam yeñta
ngal Baasondiral ngal. Eto¡ee wa¡de ¡um.
Ndeeno¡ee, Hiisorde Baasal wonaa lom-lomtal! et-
tee kuu e A e B ¡e Yeru 3, kiiso¡on A\B e B\A, maa
on njiy wonde wonaa gootum. um yonii daliilu, sabu
ko lutndo-yerub !
• Dental, Denndal kan e Baasondiral ko kiisor¡e tawtawtec .
um rti ko so tawii A, B e C ngonii kuu e,
A ∪ (B ∪C ) = (A ∪ B) ∪C, A ∩ (B ∩C ) = (A ∩ B) ∩C,
A△(B△C ) = (A△B)△C.
um wa¡i so e¡en mbinnda gootal e majje e¡en mbaawi
¡accude laañe ¡e, waasde winndude ¡e. Ndallinen
jooni maral gadingal ngal, woni paatungal e hiisorde
Dental ndee: En mbi'iino wonde Potal hakkunde ku-
u e ¡i¡i rti ko kala ge¡el kala kuu al ina tawee nder
50
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 3.2. MIIJANTEERI KUUE
go¡ngal ngal. um noon, so en nji¡ii dallinde wonde
A ∪ (B ∪C ) = (A ∪ B) ∪C
ko nii mba¡aten:
So a wonii ge¡el e nder A ∪ (B ∪ C ), maa mbinnden
a ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C ), ¡um noon a ina e dental A e B ∪ C.
um noon, so en tuugniima e Teskuya 2, maa wonii
a ko ge¡el e nder A walla ge¡el e nder B ∪C. So tawii
a jeyaa ko e A, wadde a ne jeyaa kadi e A ∪ B, ¡um
noon a ene jeyaa e (A ∪ B) ∪ C. E bae go¡¡o oo,
so tawiino wonde a jeyaa ko e B ∪C, ¡um noon so en
kuutoriima Teskuya mo njoo -¡en jooni oo (2), a ina
jeyaa e B walla e C; so o jeyaama e B, o jeyee e A ∪ B,
o jeyee e (A ∪ B) ∪C. So o jeyaama e C, ¡oon e ¡oon o
jeyee e kala ko renti e C, wadde o jeyee e (A ∪ B) ∪C.
En njiyii wonde kala ge¡el A ∪ (B ∪C ) ina e (A ∪ B) ∪C.
Wadde en ndallinii wonde
A ∪ (B ∪C ) ⊂ (A ∪ B) ∪C.
Gasaani tawo, ngam dallinde ko nji¡no-¡en koo, hono
A ∪ (B ∪C ) = (A ∪ B) ∪C,
51
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 3. REWRIWAL E KUUE
e¡en poti hollude kadi
(A ∪ B) ∪C ⊂ A ∪ (B ∪C ).
um noon ¯etten ge¡el e nder (A∪B) ∪C kollen wonde
engel e A ∪ (B ∪ C ). Mbiyen ngel b, ¡um noon e¡en
njogii wonde b ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C, wadde b ∈ A ∪ B walla
b ∈ C, e tuugnaade e Teskuya 2. So ngel wonii e C,
ngel wonat e kala ko renti e C, ¡um noon ngel wona e
B ∪C, so ngel wonii e B ∪C, ngel wona e kala ko renti
e mum, wadde ngel wona e A ∪ (B ∪C ). So tawii noon
ngel woni ko e A ∪ B, mba¡en hono no mba¡irno-¡en
nii! Ko ¡um huu ni daliilu oo. Eto¡ee dallinde mare
¡i¡e keddii¡e ¡ee.
Ndeeno¡ee! Hiisorde Baasal wonaa tawtawtawere! So
en nji¡ii dallinde ¡um, en ndokkat lutndo-yeru tan.
etten kuu al ngal ol¡aani, mbiyen ngal A. etten
go¡ngal ngal renndaa hay batte e A, mbiyen ngal B,
wadde A ∩ B = ∅.
A\(B\A) wonata ko A\∅ sabu B\A = B, nde tawnoo
alaa ko ¡e ndenndi! Etee A\B = A, e rewde e oon
sabaabu. um noon A\(B\A) = A. Kono so en kiisi-
ima (A\B)\A ke aten ko A\A, nde tawnoo A e B alaa ko
ndenndi, A so ¡awaama B heddotoo ko A. Jooni noon
ene laa i wonde A\A = ∅. um noon (A\B)\A = ∅.
52
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 3.2. MIIJANTEERI KUUE
So en tonngii kaa hiisa, ke en:
A\(B\A) = A
(A\B)\A = ∅.
Nde tawnoo cu ori-¡en A ko hoto ol¡u, wadde A\(B\A)
e (A\B)\A mbaawaa fotde! Daliilu gasii.
a Lomlomtaagal = (commutatitivité, commutativity)
b Lutndo-yeru = (contre-exemple, counterexample)
c Tawtawtaagal = (associativité, associativity)
Teskuya 2.5
So A, B e C ngonii kuu e. Oon sahaa
A ∪ (B ∩C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪C ) (3.3)
A ∩ (B ∪C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩C ) (3.4)
Daliilu. Ndallinten tan ko (3.3). (3.4) ¡accanaama janngoowo oo.
So tawii a ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C ), kollen wonde a ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C ).
Jooni a ∈ A walla a ∈ B ∩C. So a jeyaama e A, a jeyee e kala ko
renti e A, ¡um noon o jeyee e A ∪ B, o jeyee kadi e A ∪C, wadde
o jeyee e denndal majje, woni (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C ). Jooni noon so
53
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 3. REWRIWAL E KUUE
tawii a jeyanoo ko e B ∩C, ¡um noon a jeyee e B, o jeyee kadi e
C. Wadde o jeyee e A ∪ B, o jeyee kadi e A ∪ C, wadde o wona e
denndal majje, hono (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪C ). oo, en kollii wonde
A ∪ (B ∩C ) ⊂ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪C ).
Jooni ¯etten b ∈ (A∪B) ∩ (A∪C ). Wadde b ∈ A∪B e'kadi b ∈ A∪C,
¡um noon so en ¯eewtindiima rti ko b ∈ A so ¡um alaa b ∈ B ∩C.
um noon rti ko b ina e A ∪ (B ∩ C ). En kollirii ko nji¡no-
¡en.
Sahaaji keew¡i, maa en ngon e sifaa tawa kuu e kuutorto-¡en
¡ee fof ko baeeji kuu al gootal maantorgal. Oon sahaa noon
won ge¡el maantinngel woodi. So en innii kuu al maantorgal
ngal, en mbiyii ngal W . So A wonii kuu al tawa ko bae e W
(A ⊂ W ). Kebbito6 A (der W ) ko kuu al ngal ge¡e mum ko ¡e W
¡e ngalaa e A, wa¡de ngal hebbitat A, sabu no ngal siforaa nii,
so ngal rentii e A, he atee ko W fof. Ngal winndatee ko k A (No
kebbito A nii).
Dallinaande 2.5
So A e B ngonii kuu e. Oon sahaa, e¡en njogii ¡ee kuule
innatee¡e "Kuule de Morgan"
k
(A ∪ B) = k A ∩k B. (3.5)
6 Kebbito = (Complément, complement)
54
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 3.2. MIIJANTEERI KUUE
k
(A ∩ B) = k A ∪k B. (3.6)
Daliilu. Ndallinten tan ko (3.6). (3.5), on ¡accanaama yo on
ndallin ¡um.
So a wonii ge¡el e k (A ∩ B), wadde a jeyaaka e A ∩ B, sabu a jeyaa
ko e kebbito maggal. um noon rti A e B ndenndaani a, wa¡de
so a wonii e A waawaa wonde kadi e B, kadi so o wonii e B o waawaa
wonde kadi e A. Omo waawi noon wonde kadi e kebbito gootal e
majje kala; rti ¡um ko o waasa wonde e hay heen kuu al gootal.
Ko waawi heen wonde fof, ina laa i wonde a ina e kebbito A walla
e kebbito B, ¡um noon a ina e dental majje, woni a ∈ k A ∪k B.
Jooni noon so a wonii e k A ∪k B. Wadde a ina e k A walla e k B.
um noon maa a alaa e A, maa a alaa e B maa o alaa e hay heen
gootal. um wi'i ko a waawaa wonde e A kadi wona e B, ¡um
yi¡i wiyde ko a alaa e denndal A e B, hono A ∩ B, wadde a woni
ko e kebbito A ∩ B, woni k (A ∩ B). Ko ¡um gasni daliilu oo.
Jooni noon e¡en mbaawi jogaade kuu e keew¡e nji¡en rentinde
¡um-en, maa ¯eewde ko ¡e ndenndi. Yoo n won limoral kee-
weendi majje, tee inniren¡e hono nii: A1 , A2 , A3 , · · · , An 7 .
So en nji¡ii winndude dental majje maa denndal majje, ko nii
7 To e tati ¡ee nji¡i wiyde tan ko limoore nde jokkirtu no fu¡¡orii nii
haa yettoyoo An .
55
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 3. REWRIWAL E KUUE
mba¡aten:
n
(3.7)
[
Aj
j =1
n
(3.8)
\
Aj
j =1
(3.7) janngata ko "Dental gila j = 1 haa n ngal A j "
(3.8) janngata ko "Denndal gila j = 1 haa n ngal A j ".
56
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 3.2. MIIJANTEERI KUUE
Ekkorde 2.5
Dallin ¡ee-¡oo kuule De Morgana jaajtinaa¡e :
!
n
[ n
\
k k
Aj = Aj
j =1 j =1
!
n
\ n
[
k k
Aj = A j.
j =1 j =1
a Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) ko hiisiweejo biritaninaajo
um wiy wonde ko "Kebbito dental ko denndal kebbite" kadi
"Kebbito denndal ko dental kebbite". E¡um waawi wiyeede ¡i¡i-
¡i¡indirki8 hakkunde dental e denndal sabu ko ¡um waylondirta
dental e denndal koo. E¡en mbaawi nii dallinde kii-¡oo ¡i¡i-
¡i¡indirki hay so tawii limoral kuu e ¡ee, hono n, ko haa¡taral9 ,
woni n = ∞. Eto¡ee wa¡de ¡um.
Anndinoore 2.7
So K , wonii kuu al, e¡en mbaawi anndinde ¡ee-¡oo etooje:
1. etoore goodal : Nde teetinta ko goodgol ge¡el kisnun-
8 i¡indirki = (dualité, duality)
9 Kaa¡taral = (l'in ni, in nity)
57
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 3. REWRIWAL E KUUE
gel won sifa to¡¡aa¡o. Wi'ee ko wayi no "Ina woodi
a nder K tawa ...". um tonngatee ko "∃ a ∈ K ".
2. etoore faruweere : Nde teetinta ko kuu nal. So
sifaa to¡¡aa¡o ina hisani kala ge¡el nder K , wi'ee
ko wayi "Wonande kala a nder K , ...". um tonngee
"∀a ∈ K ".
3.3 Ju i
So A e B gonii kuu e, ju ol10 dow A paangol e nder B ko kuulal
¯ettowal kala ge¡el e nder A tolnondira¡um e ge¡el bajjel e nder
B. So en innii ngol ju ol f , e¡en mbaawi winndude ¡um e
hiisankoore hono nii:
f : A → B.
So a wonii ge¡el nder A, f wonii ju ol hakkunde A e B, so b
wonii ge¡el nder B ngel f tolnondiri e a, ina winndee e nda a
: f (a) = b. Ko nii a e b "njiidiri e yiyannde" f . E oon sahaa a
wiyee iwre b, b wiyee jaa¯re a.
E¡en mbaawi jooni miijaade wonde so A′ (janngee A ¡immo)
wonii bannge e A, ju ol f ngol, maa tolnondir ¡um e B′ , tawa
B′ ko bae e nder B. um sifortee ko hono nii, kala ge¡el a e
nder A′ yoo jaa¯o mum, hono f (a) won e nder B′ . E'kadi kala
ge¡el e nder B′ yoo won jaa¯o ge¡el e nder A′ . So ¡um wonii,
winndee f (A′ ) = B′ . Wa¡de e¡en mbaawi yiyde kala ju ol e dow
10 Ju ol = (fonction, function)
58
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 3.3. JUI
nge¡on A, hono-no ju ol e dow baeeji A. Tesko¡ee ndee ¡oo
yiyannde, ko nde heewnde nafoore.
Yeru 3.5
So A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {a, b, , c, d, d}. E¡en mbaawi sosde
ju ol j : A → B mahiriingol ndaa-nii: f (1) = c, f (2) = b,
f (3) = , f (4) = a, f (5) = d. um ina waawi annomineede
e ndee-¡oo tigilde:
f
A B
5 d
4 c
2 b
1 a
59
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 3. REWRIWAL E KUUE
Anndinoore 3.1
Ju ol f : A → B ina wi'ee ko co¡ola so tawii alaa ge¡e ¡i¡e
nder A denndu¡e jaa¯re. Walla mbiyen, e jemmondiral, kala
ge¡el nder B jogotoo so heewii ko iwre wootere.
a Ju ol co¡ol = (fonction injective, injective or one-to-one function)
Anndinoore 3.2
Ju ol f : A → B ina wi'ee ko cuddola so tawii kala ge¡el
nder B ina jogii iwre mum nder A.
a Ju ol cuddol = (fonction surjective, surjective or onto function)
Anndinoore 3.3
Ju ol f : A → B ina wi'ee ko gootwootola so tawii ko ngol
co¡ol kadi ko ko ngol cuddol. um rti wadde ko kala ge¡el
nder B ina jogii iwre nder A, etee ndeen ko wajjere.
a Ju ol gootwootol = (fonction bijective, bijective function)
60
Damal 4
Pote e ur ure
61
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 4. POTE E URURE
E ngal-¡oo damal, en coftindinto. Etaade dallinde pote1 e
ur ure2 ko coftal mo¯¯al ngam mahde hakkille mum hiisan-
keejo.
Ekkorde 0.0
Hollu ¡ee mare:
a2 + b2
|ab| ≤
2
p |a| + |b|
|ab| ≤
2
1 + n|a| ≤ (1 + |a|)n , n∈N
||a| − |b|| ≤ |a − b| ≤ |a| + |b|
|a1 + · · · + an | ≤ |a1 | + · · · + |an |
Nganndinen jooni reggannde3 e puniter¡ere4
Reggannde: n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × 3 × 2;
n
Puniter¡ere: = n × (n − 1) × · · · × (n − k + 1)
k
n!
=
k!(n − k)!
1 Potal = (égalité, equality)
2 ur ural = (inégalité, inequality)
3 Reggannde = (Factorielle, Factorial)
4 Puniter¡ere = (Binomiale, Binomial)
62
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo
Teskuya 0.1
n! janngata ko `regannde n'. To ere pengal ndee (!) woni
maande reggannde.
Ekkorde 0.0
Hollu ¡ee mare:
n
n(n + 1)
∑k= 2
k =1
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
∑ k2 = 6
k =1
n
n(n + 1) 2
3
∑k = 2
k =1
n
1 − wn+1
∑ wk = so tawii w ̸= 1
k =0 1−w
! 12 ! 21
n n n
∑ |ak bk | ≤ ∑ a2k ∑ b2k
k =1 k =1 k =1
Jooni njiyen ngal-¡oo ur ural:
63
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 4. POTE E URURE
Dallinaande 0.1
ur ural Siha : so tawi r, s ∈ [a, b] tawa r + s = a + b, on
sahaa ina hisi wonande kala w ≥ 0
wr + ws ≤ wa + wb .
a Hiitaande 2012 njiytunoo-mi ur ural ngal. Tawi ko mi almuudo
hitaande 3- ere jaa i haa¡tirde.
Daliilu. Kiiso¡en
wa + wb − wr − ws = wr (wb−r − 1) − wa (ws−a − 1)
Nde tawnoo a + b = r + s, wadde b − r = s − a. Wadde ke en,
wa + wb − wr − ws = wr (wb−r − 1) − wa (wb−r − 1)
= (wr − wa )(wb−r − 1)
= wa (wr−a − 1)(wb−r − 1).
Jooni joon, wa ≥ 0. Kadi nde tawnoo r − a ≥ 0, b − r ≥ 0, wadde
wr−a − 1, e wb−r − 1 njiidi maande; kala nde gootal eydi¡i ngala
eydi¡at, ko noon ne so usti¡ii. Wadde
(wr−a − 1)(wb−r − 1) ≥ 0. Njetto¡en wadde ¡o:
wa + wb − wr − ws ≥ 0. Ko ¡um yi¡anoo dallineede.
64
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo
Dallinaande 0.2
Ina hisi wonde
n
n n n−k k
(a + b) = ∑ a b
k =0 k
Ekkorde 0.2
Rokku ñoggal amtala (a + b)4 .
a amtal = (développement, expansion)
Ekkorde 0.2
Hollu wonde
n
n n
2 =∑ .
k =0 k
Hiiso wonande a ∈ [0, 1]
n
n
∑ k an−k (1 − a)k .
k =0
65
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 4. POTE E URURE
66
Damal 5
Ju i
5.1 Yeruuji gadani
Anndinoore 1.1
Yoo won n ∈ N. Ju ol ina wi'ee ko heewpayola ngol tolno
n so engol waawi tonngireede:
f (w) = an wn + an−1 wn−1 + · · · a1 w + a0
tawa an ̸= 0.
a Heewpayol = (polynôme, polynomial)
67
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Yeru 1.0
• Heewpayol ngol tolno 1 ko portol f (w) = aw + b tawa
a ̸= 0. Oon sahaa, a wi'ee ko wahoa (walla piytirgel
¡owo) portol ngol.
• Payan¡e, fn (w) = wn ko kasii¡e keerii¡eb heewpayi.
a Waho = (pente, slope)
b Hasiinde heeriinde = (cas particulier, especial case)
Yeru 1.0
Nawdawola anndinirtee ko heewpayol ngol tolno 2: f (w) =
aw2 + bw + tawa a ̸= 0.
68
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.1. YERUUJI GADANI
f (w)
Nawdawol
a Nawdawol = (Parabole, Parabola)
Anndinoore 1.2
69
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Ju ol ina wi'ee jowola so tawii ina woodi a ∈
/ {0, 1} tawa
f (w) = a . (oo waylotoonde w ndee ko yowaande, ko ¡um
w
addi innde ndee). Limoral a ngal wiyee ko diiñorde ju ol
ngol.
a Ju ol jowol = (fonction exponentielle, exponential function)
Teskuya 1.1
Heewpayi njogotoo ko tolnooji, jowi njogotoo ko diiñor¡e.
Teskuya 1.2
Ju i jowi uri ju i heewpayi yaawde eydogol: Jowol ngol
diiñorde p urata heewpayol ngol tolno p yaawde. etten
p=2:
w: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2w : 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024
w2 : 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
En tawii wonde, e nguu-¡oo yeru, so w ina taa oo, teeti
noon wonande w-uuji maw¡i, ko 2w urata bewde e w2 .
70
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.1. YERUUJI GADANI
Natal ju ol jowol y = 2w e ju ol payol y = w2 :
f (w)
y = 2w
y = w2
71
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Teskuya 1.3
E¡en mbaawi teskaade wonde ustal, eydal, maa cowal hakkunde
heewpayi ¡i¡i rokkata ko heewpayol go¡ngol. Woni, so H
e P ngonii heewpayi ¡i¡i, oon sahaa ¡ii-¡oo ju i ko heew-
payi:
• H −P
• H +P
• H × P.
Kono noon, HP wonaa heewpayol (e kuu al). E¡en mbaawi
¯ettude yeru P(w) = 2w + 1, H (w) = w − 1, ke en:
H w−1
= .
P 2w + 1
um wonaa heewpayol. So wonaa won e kasii¡ea , nder mu-
men P ne fecca H, ¡um hawrataa e heewpayol. Ju ol gann-
diniragol pe¯tal hakkunde heewpayi ¡i¡i, hono HP , ina wi'ee
Ju ol jerolb .
a Hasiinde = (cas, case)
b Ju ol jerol = (Fonction rationnelle, rational function)
72
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.1. YERUUJI GADANI
Anndinoore 1.3
1. Ju ol f ina wi'ee ko jippitarola so tawii
w > y =⇒ f (w) ≥ f (y).
2. Ju ol f ina wi'ee ko abbiwolb so tawii
w > y =⇒ f (w) > f (y).
3. Ju ol f ina wi'ee ko abbitarolc so tawii
w > y =⇒ f (w) ≤ f (y).
4. Ju ol f ina wi'ee ko jippiwold so tawii
w > y =⇒ f (w) < f (y).
a Ju ol jippitarol = (fonction croissante, non-decreasing function)
b Ju ol abbiwol = (fonction strictement croissante, increasing
function)
c Ju ol abbitarol = (fonction décroissante, non-increasing func-
tion)
d Ju ol jippiwol = (fonction strictement décroissante, decreasing
function)
73
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Anndinoore 1.4
1. Ju ol jippitarol walla abbitarol ina siforee duttarol.
2. Ju ol abbiwol walla jippiwol ina siforee ñii kuccol.
5.2 To e teskin¡e
Anndinoore 2.1
Yoo f won ju ol, c wona to ere. f (c) ina wi'ee ko
mawnasre hoddiwerea wonande f , so tawii ina woodi annde
]a, b[ loownde c, tawa:
∀w ∈]a, b[, f (c) ≥ f (w).
Wadde e nder koddiwalb ]a, b[ ngal, ko f (c) urata mawnude
so yerondiraama e kala f (w).
a Mawnasre hoddiwere = (maximum local, local maximum)
b Koddiwal = (voisinage, neighborhood)
E¡en njogii kadi ndee-¡oo anndinoore:
Anndinoore 2.2
74
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.3. JOOFIRE E JOKKOLINGOL
Yoo f won ju ol, c wona to ere. f (c) ina wi'ee ko
famarde hoddiwerea wonande f , so tawii ina woodi annde
]a, b[ loownde c, tawa:
∀w ∈]a, b[, f (c) ≤ f (w).
Wadde e nder koddiwal ]a, b[ ngal, ko f (c) urata fam¡ude
so yerondiraama e kala f (w).
a Famarde hoddiwere = (minimum local, local minimum)
Anndinoore 2.3
Mawnasre hoddiwere e famarde hoddiwere ina mbi'ee ce ite
koddiweejea .
a Se itere hoddiwere = (extremum local, local extremum)
5.3 Joo r¡e e jokkolingol
Anndinoore 3.1
Yoo f :]a, b[→ R won ju ol. So c wonii to ere nder [a, b],
ina wi'ee wonde f ina jogii joo rdea to c so tawii ina woodi
75
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
d tawa:
∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, so tawii |w − c| < δ , oon sahaa | f (w) − d| < ε.
Binndol dow-¡oo ngol ina tariree: "Wonande kala epsilon
eydowal, ina woodi deltaa eydowal, tawa so ngo¡¡eeki
hakkunde w e c jaasii deltaa, oon sahaa ngo¡¡eeki hakkunde
f (w) e d jaasat epsilon". E¡um tonngee e nda a:
Joof f (w) = d.
w→c
`d ' wi'atee ko joo rde f to to ere c.
a Joo rde = (limite, limit)
Anndinoore 3.2
Yoo f :]a, b[→ R won ju ol. So c wonii to ere nder ]a, b[,
ina wi'ee wonde f ina jokkolini a to c so tawii:
∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, so tawii |w − c| < δ , oon sahaa | f (w) − f (c)| < ε.
E¡um tonngee e nda a:
Joof f (w) = f (c).
w→c
a Jokkolinde = (être continu, to be continuous)
76
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.3. JOOFIRE E JOKKOLINGOL
Teskuya 3.1
Ju ol f ina jokkolini to c so tawii f (c) e joo rde f to c
poti.
Anndinoore 3.3
Ju ol f ina wiyee ina jokkolini dow annde ]a, b[ so tawii
engol jokkolini to kala to ere nder ]a, b[.
Dallinaande 3.1
ii ju i ko jokkolini dow R:
• Heewpayol ngol kala tolno.
• Jowol ngol kala diiñorde.
• Ju ol siniisiwol.
Ekkorde 3.1
Eto hujjinde dallinaande dow-¡oo ndee.
77
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Dallinaande 3.2
So ju i ¡i¡i f e g njokkolinii to to ere c, oon sahaa ina
njogaa ¡ee mare:
• f + g ina jokkolini to c,
• − f ina jokkolini to c,
• f × g ina jokkolini to c,
• so tawii f (c) ̸= 0, 1
f ina jokkolini to c.
5.4 Caltal
Anndinoore 4.1
Yo j : [a, b] → R won ju ol. Yoo ∈]a, b[ won to ere
maaniwere. Ina wi'ee j ina saltinoo to so tawii ndee-¡oo
joo rde ina woodi:
j ( + h) − j ( )
Joof .
h→0 h
So, ¡um wa¡ii, joo rde ndee wi'ee ko caltala j to , ndee
78
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.4. CALTAL
tonngee j′ ( ). He ee wadde
j ( + h) − j ( )
j′ ( ) = Joof .
h→0 h
a Caltal = (dérivée, derivative)
Yeru 4.2
Caltinen ju ol j (w) = w2 to to ere maaniweere w0 :
j (w0 + h) − j (w0 ) (w0 + h)2 − w20 w20 + 2w0 h + h2 − w20
= =
h h h
2w0 h + h2
= = 2w0 + h.
h
Jooni noon, so en ¯ettii joo rde mum saatu nde h → 0, ke en
j′ (w0 ) = Joof (2w0 + h) = 2w0 .
h→0
Nde tawnoo w0 ko to ere waawnde wonde kala ¯ettaande.
Ke en, wonande kala w ∈ R,
j′ (w) = 2w .
79
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Ekkorde 4.2
Yoo won ju ol j (w) = wn tawa n ≥ 1 ko ki al. Hollu wonde
j′ (w) = nwn−1 .
Joofannde: Huutoro ñoggal
n
n n n−k k
(a + b) = ∑ a b.
k =0 k
Dallinaande 4.3
So f e g ngonii ju i caltintoo¡i, oon sahaa
( f g ) ′ ( w ) = f ′ ( w ) g ( w ) + f ( w ) g′ ( w ) .
Daliilu. Mbinnden:
f (w + h)g(w + h) − f (w)g(w)
=
h
f (w + h)g(w + h) − f (w)g(w) + f (w + h)g(w) − f (w + h)g(w)
=
h
g(w + h) − g(w) f (w + h) − f (w)
= f (w + h) + g(w) .
h h
Heddii tan ko ¯ettude joo rde mum saatu h → 0.
80
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.4. CALTAL
Teskuya 4.1
ooni e¡en mbaawi dallinde wonande kala ki al n ≥ 1, so
tawii fn (w) = wn , oon sahaa
fn′ (w) = nwn−1 .
E¡en mbaawi dallinirde ¡um duñruñterea :
1. Fu¡nere: kollen so n = 1, ñoggal ngal ina goong¡i:
f 1 (w + h) − f 1 (w) w+h−w
f1′ (w) = Joof = Joof
h→0 h h→0 h
= Joof 1 = 1 = 1 × w . 1−1
h→0
2. Rontinere: kollen wonde so ñoggal ngal goong¡anii
fn−1 , ngal goong¡anat fn : ngam ¡um en kuutorto ku-
ulal caltal cowal,
fn (w) = w × wn−1 = f1 (w) fn−1 (w).
Wadde
fn′ (w) = ( f1 fn−1 )′ (w) = f1′ (w) fn−1 (w) + f1 (w) fn−1
′
(w)
′
= 1 × wn−1 + w fn−1 (w).
81
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Jooni ayri njoo¡torin¡e ko ñoggalb ngal ina hisani
fn−1 (w), wadde fn−1
′ (w) = (n − 1)wn−2 . So en njollii
¡um heen ke en,
fn′ (w) = 1 × wn−1 + w × (n − 1)wn−2
= wn−1 + (n − 1)wn−1 = nwn−1 .
Wadde en kuu nii rontinere ndee. Ko ¡um gasni dali-
ilu oo.
a Kisindol duñruñtere = (raisonnement par récurrence, induction
argument)
b Ñoggal = (formule, formula)
Dallinaande 4.4
So f wonii ju ol calintoongol tawa f (w) ̸= 0. Oon sahaa
′
1 f ′ (w)
(w) = − .
f f (w)2
Daliilu. Kiiso¡en:
1 1 f (w)− f (w+h)
f (w+h)
− f (w) f (w+h) f (w) f (w) − f (w + h)
= =
h h h f (w + h) f (w)
f (w)− f (w+h) f (w+h)− f (w)
h − h
= = .
f (w + h) f (w) f (w + h) f (w)
82
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.4. CALTAL
Heddii jooni ko ¯ettude joo rde mum saatu h → 0:
′ 1 1 f (w+h)− f (w)
1 f (w+h)
− f (w) −
(w) = Joof = Joof h
f h→0 h h→0 f (w + h) f (w)
f (w+h)− f (w)
−Joof h − f ′ (w)
h→0
= = .
Joof f (w + h) f (w) f (w)2
h→0
Daliilu huu ii.
Ekkorde 4.4
Hollu wonde
′
f f ′ (w)g(w) − g′ (w) f (w)
(w) = .
g g(w)2
Ekkorde 4.4
En nji'iino wonde so n ∈ N∗ , (wn )′ = nwn−1 .
Yaajtin ñoggal ngal to n ∈ Z.
Kuulal callalal:
83
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Dallinaande 4.5
So f e g ko caltintoo¡e, ina jogaa
( f (g))′ (w) = g′ (w) f ′ (g(w)).
Ekkorde 4.5
Hollu wonande kala r ∈ Q,
(wr )′ = rwr−1 .
Tesko: Ngal ñoggal ina hisi hayso r wonii kala limoral nder
R, kono dallinde ¡um uri ¡oo sa¡tude. Etoyo wa¡de ¡um
so a yiyoyii joofgol wootmbaadiwol dogge ju i.
Teskuya 4.2
E fawaade e anndinoore caltal, e¡en mbaawi he de ngol-¡oo
adol: so h fam¡ii haa tiindoyiima ndiga,
j (w + h) − j (w)
j ′ (w) ≈ .
h
84
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.4. CALTAL
Ndeen noon adol rokka ngol-¡oo:
j (w + h) ≈ j (w) + h j ′ (w).
Kaa teskuya ko paayodinka sanne. En nganndi ju i ina
mbaawi jogaade mbaydiiji cattu¡i hiisoraade junngo, so masi
tawaaka. Kono teskuya kaa wi'i ko so tawii j ko caltinngol,
so e¡en nganndi njaru j (w) wonande w to¡¡aa¡o, ndeen ma
en mbaaw etde njaruuji j to lime catii¡e w. eew yeruuji
les-¡ii.
Yeru 4.5
√
E¡en nji¡i hiisoraade junngo 4, 5. ayde masi tawaaka
maa ¡um sa¡tu sanne. Kono so en kuutoriima ñoggal ndallin-
¡en dow ngal: hono
j (w + h) ≈ j (w) + h j ′ (w),
e¡en mbaawi wa¡irde ¡um no wee iri. Cu o¡en j (w) =
√ √
w. Nde tawnoo ( w)′ = 2√1 w , ke en
√ √ h
w+h ≈ w+ √ .
2 w
Jooni, ¯etten w = 4, h = 0, 5 mbele w + h = 4, 5 kadi tawa h
85
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
wo¡¡aani ndiga, mbele ñoggal ngal ina hisa. Ke en
p √ 0, 5 0, 5
4, 5 ≈ 4 + √ = 2 + = 2 + 0, 125 = 2, 125.
2 4 4
√
Wadde en ke ii wonde 4, 5 ≈ 2, 125. √
So en koolkisiima ¡um e masi ma en taw 4, 5 ≈ 2, 1213.
Wadde wo¡¡ondiraani; ngati to lime ¡i¡e gadane caggal
piccal ¡ee fof kawral ina wa¡i.
Ko mba¡-¡en ¡oo koo woni ko wi'atee adal. Ko ¡owol
doolnungol haa fakiti nder silo hiisiwo. Engol huutoree e
mbaadiiji keew¡i.
Ekkorde 4.5
So a wonii limoral laa ngal, h wonii limoral laa ngal gonngal
e sato 0, rokku ñoggal adal ngal-¡oo limoral
L (h) = (1 + h)a .
Hiiso 1.01100 .
Teskuya 4.3
√
E¡en mbaawi huutoraade ñoggal adal ke anno-¡en a + h,
86
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.4. CALTAL
ngal ndañen:
√ h
1+h ≈ 1+ .
2
√ √
Jooni noon e¡en ngal wonde limoreeje bay¡e no 2, 3,
√
5 ekn. ngonaa limoreeje jere, ko ¡e jertare. Woni ¡um ko
¡e mbaawaa tonngeede e mbaadi ab tawa a e b ko ki e (en
ndalliniino ¡um e deftere men "Gannde Hiisiwo, rogere 1:
diiñor¡e", `2019). Kono noon e¡en mbaawi he de limoral
jeral
√ (keltal) adotoongal ¡ee limoreeje. Yeru, so en ¯ettii
3, e¡um mbaawi yahrude heen ndaa-nii:
3 × 52 = 75 = 81 − 6 = 92 − 6.
Wadde
92 92 92
6 2
3 = 2 −6 = 2 1− 2 = 2 1−
5 5 9 5 27
Jooni kiiso¡en ¡a¡ol ¡i¡iwol mum:
√
r
9 2
3= 1− .
5 27
87
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Kuutoro¡en adol dow-ngol, ke en:
!
√ 2
9 27 9 1 9 26 26
3≈ 1− = 1− = × = .
5 2 5 27 5 27 15
Wadde en ke ii ngal-¡oo adal:
√ 26
3≈ .
15
Ekkorde 4.5
E huutoraade ¡owol dow-ngol, yiytan ¡ee limoreeje ade
mumen jumtu¡e:
√
1. 2
√
2. 5
√
3. 7
E¡en njogii dallinaande Fermat:
Dallinaande 4.6
So j : [a, b] → R woni ju ol caltinngol to to ere nder
]a, b[. So tawii j ina jogii se itere hoddiwerea ¡o , oon
88
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.4. CALTAL
sahaa ina hisi wonde:
j′ ( ) = 0.
a Se itere hoddiweere = (extremum local, local extremum
Kono sahaa j′ (w0 ) ina wona ndiga tawa j alaa ¡oon se itere.
Yeru: so en ¯ettii j (w) = w3 . Ke en j′ (0) = 0, etee j (0) wonaa
se itorde.. oon ina jogee ko wi'atee to ere waklitorde1 .
Anndinoore 4.2
En nji'ii dow-¡oo wonde so j′ ( ) = 0, oon sahaa f ( ) ina
waawi wonde se itere walla waklitorde wonande j. To ere
¡o f jogii se itere (mawnasre walla famarde) walla wakli-
torde ina wiyee to ere fekkornde a walla to ere daa¯orndeb .
a To ere fekkornde = (point critique, critical point)
b To ere daa¯ornde = (point stationnaire, stationary point)
E¡en mbaawi huutoraade caltal ¡immal2 (hono caltal j′ , ngal
tonngee j′′ ) ngam anndude sewlo to ere fekkornde.
Dallinaande 4.7
1 To ere waklitorde = (point d'in exion, in ection point)
2 Caltal ¡immal = (dérivée seconde, second derivative)
89
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
So tawii j′ (w0 ) = 0, oon saanga
• So tawii j′′ (w0 ) > 0, j (w0 ) ko famarde hoddiwere;
• So tawii j′′ (w0 ) < 0, j (w0 ) ko mawnasre hoddiwere;
• So tawii j′′ (w0 ) = 0, mbaadi to ere waawaa anndi-
reede ¡um. Ko maa silo wo¡ngo wa¡tee heen.
Yeru 4.7
etten j (w) = w2 . Njiylo¡en to e pekkore mum, mbi¡en
sewlo mumen: j′ (w) = 2w. Ndeen noon
j′ (w) = 0 ⇔ 2w = 0 ⇔ w = 0.
Wadde ko 0 tan woni to ere fekkornde wonande j. Jooni
noon hol sewlo mayre? Kiiso¡en: j′′ (w) = 2 > 0. Wadde
j′′ (0) = 2 > 0. Ndeen noon f (0) ko famarde hoddiwere.
Dallinaande 4.8
1. So j′ (w) ≥ 0 dow annde ]a, b[, oon sahaa j ko jippitarol
dow ]a, b[.
90
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.4. CALTAL
2. So j′ (w) ≤ 0 dow annde ]a, b[, oon sahaa j ko ab-
bitarol dow ]a, b[.
Ndokken jooni dallinaande Rolle:
Dallinaande 4.9
So j : [a, b] → R ko ju ol jokkolinol dow [a, b], ceertinngol
dow ]a, b[.
So tawii j (a) = j (b), oon sahaa ina woodi to ere nder
]a, b[ tawa
j′ ( ) = 0
Ndokken dallinaande abbe kaa¡tu¡e:
Dallinaande 4.10
So j : [a, b] → R ko ju ol jokkolinol dow [a, b], ceertinngol
dow ]a, b[. Oon sahaa ina woodi to ere nder ]a, b[ tawa
j (b) − j (a)
j′ ( ) =
b−a
ur ural abbe kaa¡¡e:
91
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Dallinaande 4.11
So j : [a, b] → R ko ju ol ceertinngol dow ]a, b[, tawa ina
woodi M > 0 kisnu¡o
| j ′ (w)| ≤ M wonande kala w ∈]a, b[.
Oon sahaa ina woodani kala w, u nder ]a, b[
| j (w) − j (u)| ≤ M|w − u|.
Anndinoore 4.3
• Ju ol f ina wi'ee kippingol so tawii wonande kala
δ ∈ [0, 1]:
f (δ w + (1 − δ )y) ≥ δ f (w) + (1 − δ ) f (y) wonande kala w.
• Ju ol f ina wi'ee gajjingol so tawii wonande kala δ ∈
[0, 1]:
f (δ w + (1 − δ )y) ≤ δ f (w) + (1 − δ ) f (y) wonande kala w.
Dallinaande 4.12
92
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.5. JOWOL SEWLIWOL
Yoo f won caltinngol laa i ¡i¡i.
• So f ′′ ≤ 0, oon sahaa f ko kippingol;
• So f ′′ ≥ 0, oon sahaa f ko gajjingol.
Ekkorde 4.12
Hol lelngo ju ol f (w) = 2w2 − 5w + 1?
5.5 Jowol sewliwol
Anndinoore 5.1
Ju ol jowol sewliwola (walla tan jowol) ko ju ol J (w) ngol
caltal mum hawrata e mum e hoore mum tawa kadi J (0) = 1:
(
J ′ (w) = J (w)
J (0) = 1
a Jowol sewliwol = (exponentielle naturelle, natural exponential)
Teskuya 5.1
E¡en nganndi jowol sewliwol waawa wonde heewpayol, ngati
93
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
ngol ndig¡aani, etee heewpayol ngol ndig¡aani waawaa fotde
e caltal mum (Dallin ¡um !).
Ndeen noon, jowol sewliwol waawaa wonde heewpayol. Eto¡en
yaajtinde, hay so ko e miijo, ju i heewpayi. E¡en mbaawi
miijaade heewpayol jaajtinangol ngol ter¡e ¡e keeweendi haa¡-
tarndi3 :
H (w) = a0 + a1 w + a2 w2 + a3 w3 + · · · + an wn + · · ·
Tawa ko noon jokkirta haa kaa¡taral. So en mbaawi anndin-
nde hono ¡een ge¡e, ina gasa tawa ju ol jiilateengol ngol ko
hono ndiin mbaadi jogii. Tawee hono ¡een ge¡e hiisiwe ina njogii
miijanteeri mumen heeriindi (callaleeje payan¡eweeje4 , ko ¡um
damal e ndee deftere). Wadde ngonen e hiisaade dow majje, ko
adii nii ko e¡en njiya ndii miijanteeri. Jooni tonngito¡en J ngol
ndaartaten ngol e mbaadi H ndii:
∞
J (w) = ∑ ak wk .
k =0
Wadde njiiloto-¡en jooni ko njaru kala heen piytirgel ak . So kon
njiitaama tan en nganndat J haa laa a; ke en wadde ju ol jowol
sewliwol.
Ko adii fof wiyaa ko J (0) = 1: wadde ke en a0 = 1.
3 Kaa¡taral = (in ni, in nity)
4 Sallaleere payan¡eweere = (série entière, power series)
94
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.5. JOWOL SEWLIWOL
Jooni kuutoro¡en fawre ¡immere ndee, hono J ′ (w) = J (w):
∞ ∞ ∞
J ′ (w) = ∑ kak wk−1 = ∑ kak wk−1 = ∑ (k + 1)ak+1 wk .
k =0 k =1 k =0
um so hawdinaama e J (w), he ee:
∞ ∞
∑ ak wk = ∑ (k + 1)ak+1 wk .
k =0 k =0
Ndeen noon, ke en fotindirki, wonande kala k,
1
ak = (k + 1)ak+1 walla ak = ak−1
k
um noon, e¡en mbaawi yiytude ak e huutoraade duñruñtere:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ak = ak−1 = ak−2 = · · · × 1 × a0
k k k−1 k k−1 k−2 2
1
= .
k!
Wadde en ke ii ju ol jowol sewliwol:
∞
wk
J (w) = ∑ .
k=0 k!
95
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Anndinoore 5.2
Limoral teskinngal jotondirngal e ju ol jowol sewliwol ko
limoral Eulera e kawrowal e J (1):
∞
1
e = J (1) = ∑ k! .
k =0
Tawee e ko limoral jertaralb . Ina jogaa wonde e ≈ 2, 718281828.
a Leonhard Euler (1707 - 1783) ko hiisiweejo siwisnaajo.
b Limoral jertaral = (nombre irrationnel, irrational number)
Ngam ko fayi e arde, e¡en katojini e ndee-¡oo dallinaande Cauchy:
Dallinaande 5.13
So ina njogaa eyde ¡i¡e A = ∑nk=0 ak e B = ∑nk=0 bk , oon
sahaa cowal majje C ina hisni
n k
C = A×B = ∑ ck , tawa ck = ∑ a j bk− j .
k =0 j =0
Tesko: hay so n woni ∞ njeñtudi ndii ina hisi.
96
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.5. JOWOL SEWLIWOL
Ekkorde 5.13
Hujjin dallinaande Cauchy dow-¡oo ndee.
Dallinaande 5.14
Ngal-¡oo ñoggal pattamlamal ina hisi:
J (w + y) = J (w)J (y).
Daliilu. Mbinnden, so en kuutoriima ñoggal (a + b)n njiyno-¡en
ko adii ngal:
∞ k
(w + y)k
∞
1 k k− j j
J (w + y) = ∑ =∑∑ w y
k =0 k! k=0 j =0 k! j
∞ k
1 k!
= ∑ ∑ k! × j!(k − j!) wk− j y j
k =0 j =0
∞ k
1
= ∑∑ wk− j y j .
k =0 j =0 j!(k − j!)
Heddii tan jooni ko tesko-¡en wonde njeñtudi ke -¡en ndii ko
cowal Cauchy ndiy-¡en dow-too ngal. Wadde njetto-¡en muuya
97
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
men, hono:
! !
∞
(w + y)k ∞
wk ∞
yk
J (w + y) = ∑ = ∑ k! ∑ k!
k =0 k! k =0 k =0
= J (w)J (y).
Daliilu huu ii.
Ekkorde 5.14
Dallin wonde, wonande kala n ∈ Z,
J ( n ) = en ,
tawa e = J (1) ko limoral Euler njiy-¡en dow ngal. Joogan-
nde: To fu¡¡orde, dallinir duñruñtere wonde so n ∈ N
J (n) = (J (1))n .
Dallinaande 5.15
Wonande kala w ∈ R, ina jogaa
J (w) = ew .
98
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.5. JOWOL SEWLIWOL
um ina waawi winnditireede e
∞
wk
ew = ∑ .
k=0 k!
Daliilu. 1. Pu¡¡oro¡en dallinde ¡um wonande w ∈ Q. Wadde
e¡en mbaawi winndude w = mn tawa n ∈ N∗ , m ∈ Z. Ki-
iso¡en:
m n m
J =J × n = J (m) = em .
n n
Wadde Ke en wonde, ina hisani kala m
n ∈Q :
m m
J = en.
n
2. Jooni, njaajtinen ¡um wonande kala w ∈ R. En kuutorto
jokkolinol ju i ¡i mbaadi f (w) = aw . E¡en nganndi kala
laa ngal w ∈ R, ina woodi doggal rn ∈ Q joofowal to w; woni:
Joof rn = w.
n→∞
Jooni noon,
J (w) = J Joof rn = Joof J (rn )
n→∞ n→∞
Joof rn
= Joof ern = e n→∞ = ew .
n→∞
Daliilu oo huu ii.
99
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Teskuya 5.2
E¡en mbaawi rokkude adal paayodinngal wonande ju ol
jowol. Kuutoro-¡en haa jooni adal kuu nungal njiyno-
¡en ngal: j (w + h) ≈ j (w) + h j′ (w). So en kuutoriima wonde
(ew )′ = ew , oon sahaa so tawii h fam¡ii haa addima 0:
ew+h ≈ ew + hew = (1 + h)ew .
um ina wiya en, so en nganndii njaru ju ol jowol to w,
hono ew , e¡en mbaawi anndude njaru adiingu ew+h so h
adiima 0. Yeru: so w = 0, e¡en nganndi e0 = 1. Wadde so
h fam¡ii, e¡en njogii
eh ≈ 1 + h.
Teskuya 5.3
So en kuutoriima adal eh ≈ 1 + h, kiiso¡en e−0,3 . So en
ngalaano adal ngal, alataano e sago kuutoro¡en kiisorgel
(masi ). Jooni noon kiiso¡en:
e−0,3 ≈ 1 − 0, 3 = 0, 7.
100
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.6. KIAL RIEMANN
Ke en wadde e−0,3 ≈ 0, 7. um wo¡¡aani no feewi njaru
goong¡ungo nguu (nguun ina tolnoo e 0, 740).
Dallinaande 5.16
Wonande kala n ∈ N, ngol-¡oo joofol ina hisi:
ew
Joof = +∞
w→+∞ wn
Daliilu. Mbinnden, wonande w ≥ 0:
w2 wn wn + 1 ∞
wk
ew = 1 + w + + ··· + + + ∑
2 n! (n + 1)! k=n+2 k!
wn+1
≥ .
(n + 1) !
Ndeen noon,
ew w
≥ .
wn (n + 1)!
Nde tawnoo Joof w
= +∞, doosgal catal rokka en ko ndaartatno-
w→∞ (n+1)!
¡en.
5.6 Ki al Riemann
101
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Anndinoore 6.1
Ju ol f ina wi'ee tugadaarewola dow annde [a, b[ so tawii
ina woodi n ∈ N, limoreeje {h0 , h2 , · · · , hn−1 }, e limoreeje a =
w0 ≤ w1 ≤ · · · ≤ wn = b tawa :
so w ∈ [ai , ai+1 [, oon sahaa f (w) = hi .
Wadde ko ju ol ngol njaru mum ñii i dow nganon tokoson
pe¯towon [a, b] e gane n. um waya no tolnooji pawondiri
nii, so annominaama.
a Tugadaare = (escalier, stair)
Yeru 6.16
Ju ol ngol-¡oo ko tugadaarewol dow [0, 3] :
1 so w ∈ [0, 1[
f (w) = 3 so w ∈ [1, 2[
2 so w ∈ [2, 3].
E¡en mbaawi annominde ngol:
102
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.6. KIAL RIEMANN
y
w
1 2 3
Teskuya 6.1
E¡e mbaawin winndude ju ol tugadaarewol e ñoggal bee n-
gol:
n−1
f (w) = ∑ hk 1[a ,a
k k +1 [
(w).
k =0
Tawa so K wonii kuu al, ju ol 1K (w) rokkata ko 1 so tawii
w ∈ K , walla 0 so ¡um alaa. Ndeen noon hi wonata tooweendi
ju ol ngol dow diiñorde [ai , ai+1 [.
103
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Anndinoore 6.2
Wonande ju ol tugadaarewol ustarolabcd , ki al maggol
ina hawra e wertalloe wonngo hakkunde kofolf e diidol w-
uuji.
E yeru men mba¡-¡en dow nguu, ki al ju ol ngol hawra
e ko annominaa mbo¡ojum les-¡oo koo:
y
w
1 2 3
a Limoral ustarum (nombre positif, non-negative nuber)
b Limoral eydal = (nombre strictement positif, positive number)
c Limoral eydaral = (nombre négatif, non-positive number)
d Limoral ustal = (nombre strictement négatif, negative number)
e Wertallo = (aire, area)
f Kofol = (courbe, curve)
104
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.6. KIAL RIEMANN
Teskuya 6.2
Ki al ju ol tugadaarewol hawrata ko e eydal bertalle
mahii¡e dow kala nganon (diiñorle) pe¯tirkon [a, b[ kon, kon
tooweendi (njuuteendi) hi -ji ¡ii. um maa rokku dalli-
naande aroore.
105
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Dallinaande 6.17
So f wonii ju ol tugadaarewol dow [a, b[, hono
n−1
f (w) = ∑ hk 1[a ,ak k +1 [
(w),
k =0
Ki al f dow [a, b[ hawrata ko
ˆ b n−1
a
f (w)dw = ∑ hk × (ak+1 − ak ).
k =0
Tesko: hk × (ak+1 −ak ) hawrata ko wertallo cawdarala daringol
dow diiñorde [ak , ak+1 [ ngal tooweendi hk . Wadde ko ¡um
eydal koon mbertallon.
Tesko: oo f ¯ettaaka yo won ustaral, wadde won heen hk -ji
ina mbaawi wonde uste. Bertalle kawrooje heen ¡ee ngar-
data ko e maande ustoore tan. Wadde, maa wood to ki al
usti, walla ndig¡i so tawii bertalle dow ¡ee ( eydooje) e
106
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.6. KIAL RIEMANN
les-¡ee (ustooje) poti !
a Cawdaral = (rectangle, rectangle)
Anndinoore 6.3
Yoo f won ju ol jokkolinol dow [a, b[. Nganndinen
n−1
k (b − a)
Rn (w) = ∑ f a + 1[a+ k(b−a) ,a+ (k+1)(b−a) [ (w).
k =0 n n n
E¡en mbaawi innirde Rn (w) `tugadaarewol Riemann n- ol
wonande f '. Wadde ¡oo e¡en njogii:
k (b − a)
ak = a + .
n
Teskuya 6.3
Ki al ju ol tugadaarewol Riemann ngol ina
ˆ b
b − a n−1
k (b − a)
Rn (w)dw = f a+ .
a n k∑ =0 n
107
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Dallinaande 6.18
Ki al tugadaarewol Rn ina adoo ki al ju ol ngol so n
ina abba feewde +∞. E¡en mbaawi winndude:
ˆ b ˆ b
f (w)dw = Joof Rn (w)dw
a n→∞ a
b − a n−1
k (b − a)
= Joof f a+ .
n→∞ n k∑ =0 n
Wadde so n mawnii haa yoni (ko yonata koo fawotoo ko e
ju ol hee), ina jogoo ngal- adala :
ˆ b ˆ b
f (w)dw ≈ Rn (w)dw.
a a
a adal = (approximation, approximation)
Yeru 6.18
So f (w) = w2 dow [0, 2] (wadde a = 0, b = 2), E¡en mbaawi
hiisaade R4 : ngol fe¯tata annde [0, 2] ko e nganon nayon:
[0, 12 [, [ 12 , 1[, [1, 32 [ e [ 23 , 2[.
108
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.6. KIAL RIEMANN
E¡en njogii wonde a0 = 0, a1 = 12 , a2 = 1, a3 = 23 .
R4 = f (a0 )1[0, 1 [ + f (a1 )1[ 1 ,1[ + f (a2 )1[1, 3 [ + f (a3 )1[ 3 ,2]
2 2 2 2
1 9
= 0 + 1[0, 1 [ + 1[1, 3 [ + 1[ 3 ,2] .
4 2 2 4 2
Ke en
1 9
R4 (w) = 1[0, 1 [ (w) + 1[1, 3 [ (w) + 1[ 3 ,2] (w).
4 2 2 4 2
Ko ngol-¡oo ju ol R4 etotoo adaade ju ol f (w) = w2
saanga nde n = 4. So n uriino ¡oon, ganon kon ura heewde
e fam¡ude, adogol ngol ura see de e hawrude. Kiiso¡en
ki al R4 :
ˆ 2
1 1 9 1 7 7
R4 (w)dw = +1+ = × = .
0 2 4 4 2 2 4
Ndeen noon, en ke ii adal ki al f (w) = w2 dow [0, 2]:
ˆ 2
7
w2 dw ≈ .
0 4
Tesko: ¡um wonaa potal, kono ko adal. Firti ko e¡en
mbaawi urde adaade jaa towol goong¡ungol ngol. So en
mawninii n (woni hebbinde nganon kon), ina hasii uren
109
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
adaade mo¯¯ol ngol (hono 83 ). Kono woni faayiida ngol-
¡oo ¡owol adol ko hiisa ki al ina heewi to aanni, etee
ina soklee anndeede njeñtudi. Wadde e¡um huutoree sanne
ngam he de jeñtule pattamlame no wee iri.
Ekkorde 6.18
Rokku adal ki al ¡ii ju i:
1. f (w) = w2 − w + 1 dow [1, 2], n = 4;
2. f (w) = 2w3 − 1 dow [0, 2], n = 5;
3. f (w) = 1
w2 +1
dow [0, 4], n = 8.
Dallinaande 6.19
So f e g ko ju i ceolini dow [a, b], ¡ee mare ina kisi:
1. So α ∈ R,
ˆ b ˆ b ˆ b
α f (w) + g(w)dw = α f (w)dw + g(w)dw.
a a a
110
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.6. KIAL RIEMANN
2. So tawii f ≤ g dow [a, b]:
ˆ b ˆ b
f (w)dw ≤ g(w)dw.
a a
3. Wonande kala limoral c,
ˆ c ˆ b ˆ b
f (w)dw + f (w)dw = f (w)dw.
a c a
4.
ˆ b ˆ b
f (w) dw ≤ | f (w)| dw.
a a
5. (ur ural Cauchy-Schwarz)
ˆ b ˆ b ˆ
s s
b
| f (w)g(w)| dw ≤ 2
| f (w)| dw |g(w)|2 dw.
a a a
Ndee dallinaande aroore wi'atee "Dallinaande yummayre Silo", ko
Newton sosnoo nde. Ko ndee huutortee ngam hiisaade njaruuji-
jaati ki e, ko aldaa e adol:
Dallinaande 6.20
Yoo f won ju ol ceolinol. Yoo t won to ere. Nganndinen
111
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
ngol-¡oo ju ol
ˆ w
F (w) = f (r )dr.
t
Oon sahaa, F ko caltingol, etee
F ′ (w) = f (w).
Daliilu. Mbinnden:
ˆ w ˆ w+h
|F (w) − F (w + h) − h f (w)| = f (r )dr − f (r )dr − h f (w)
t t
ˆ w+h
= f (r )dr − h f (w)
w
ˆ w+h
= ( f (r ) − f (w)) dr
w
ˆ w+h
≤ | f (r ) − f (w)| dr
w
Jooni kuutoro-¡en jokkolingol f . E¡en nganndi wonande kala ε >
0, e¡en mbaawi fam¡inde h haa ke en | f (r ) − f (w)| ≤ ε wonande
kala r ∈ [w, w + h]. Wadde
ˆ w+h
|F (w) − F (w + h) − h f (w)| ≤ εdr ≤ εh.
w
112
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.6. KIAL RIEMANN
Ndeen noon,
F (w) − F (w + h)
− f (w) ≤ ε.
h
E¡en mbaawi jooni wonde e nawde h → 0, ε faya to 0:
F (w) − F (w + h)
Joof = f (w).
h→0 h
Daliilu oo huu ii.
So en kuutoriima dallinaande yummayre silo, e¡en mbaawi hu-
jjinde no wee iri ndee-¡oo aroore:
Dallinaande 6.21
So f wonii ju ol jokkolinol. Wonande kala a e b, ina hisi:
ˆ b
f ′ (w)dw = f (b) − f (a).
a
Tesko: So f ′ wonii caltal f , f ina innee gaditingola f ′ . Wadde
so en nji¡ii hiisaade ki al ju ol, en njiiloto gaditingol
ju ol ngol.
a Gaditingol = (primitive, anti-derivative)
113
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Yeru 6.21
Kiiso¡en ngal-¡oo ki al:
ˆ 1
w3 dw.
0
oo f ′ (w) = w3 . Njiilo¡en f . E¡en nganndi wonde (w4 )′ =
4 ′
4w3 = 4 f ′ (w), wadde w4 = f ′ (w). Ndeen noon f (w) =
w4
4 + K , tawa K ko ñii ngal. Reento: alaa e sago ngal eydee
heen, ngati caltal ñii ngal ko 0, wadde hay so anndaaka
ko ngal jari, en mbaawi joo¡toraade ngal alaa ¡oon; ngati
waasde wa¡de ngal ¡oon ko joo¡toraade ko ngal 0. um ko
saggere wonata. Wadde e ko uri yaajde, so f ′ (w) = g′ (w),
oon sahaa f (w) = g(w) + K , tawa K ko ñii ngal, woni ngal
4
fawaaki e w. Ngarten e yeru men, e¡en njogii f (w) = w4 + K .
Wadde so en kuutoriima dallinaande dow ndee, ke en:
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
14 1
w3 dw = f ′ (w)dw = f (1) − f (0) = + K − (0 + K ) = .
0 0 4 4
Tesko: Ñii ngal ngal, hono K , to rewaa fof ngal ñaamondirat
e hoore maggal nder hiisa ki al.
114
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.6. KIAL RIEMANN
Teskuya 6.4
Sahaa e¡en kuutoroo tonngol:
f (b) − f (a) = [ f ]ba .
Wadde ki al ngal winnditee:
ˆ b
f ′ (w)dw = [ f ]ba .
a
Ekkorde 6.21
Hiiso ki al ¡ii ju i hakkunde kanndea dokkaa¡e ¡ee:
1. 2w4 − 1, a = −1, b = 1
2. ew , a = 0, b = 1
3. e−2w , a = 0, b = 1
w2
4. we 2 , a = −1, b = 1
5. 1
w2
, a = 1, b = 10
a Kanndal ki al = (borne de l'intégrale, bound of integration)
Won karallal nafowal woodi e hiisa ki e. Ngal wi'etee ko
115
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
"Ki irgol baeeji5 ". Ummoro¡en kuulal caltal cowal:
( f (w)g(w))′ = f ′ (w)g(w) + f (w)g′ (w).
Jooni ki en ¡um hakkunde a e b,
ˆ b ˆ b ˆ b
( f (w)g(w))′ dw = f ′ (w)g(w)dw + f (w)g′ (w)dw.
a a a
Wadde njetto-¡en ¡o:
ˆ b ˆ b
′
f (w)g (w)dw = [ f (w)g(w)]ba − f ′ (w)g(w)dw.
a a
Ko ngal-¡oon ñoggal wi'etee "Ki irgol baeeji". Nafoore mag-
gal alaa to haa¡i.
Yeru 6.21
Kiiso¡en ngal-¡oo ki al
ˆ 1
wew dw.
0
E¡en mbaawi huutoraade Ki irgol baeeji: pawen
f (w) = w f ′ (w) = 1
g′ (w) = ew g ( w ) = ew .
5 Ki irgol baeeji = (Intégration par parties, Integration by parts)
116
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.6. KIAL RIEMANN
Wadde
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
w
we dw = [wew ]10 − wdw
0 0
w2
= 1e1 − 0 − [ ]10
2
1 1
= e− −0 = e− .
2 2
En ke ii wadde:
ˆ 1
1
wew dw = e − .
0 2
Ekkorde 6.21
Hiiso
ˆ 1
wn ew dw.
0
Jooni ndokken "Gostol waylotoonde":
Dallinaande 6.22
117
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
So φ ko ju ol C1 a , f wonii jokkolinol, ina hisi wonde:
ˆ b ˆ φ (b)
f (φ (r ))φ ′ (r )dr = f (w)dw.
a φ (a)
aCm ko fedde ju i caltintoo¡i laabi m tawa caltal m- al ngal, ton-
ngateengal f (m) , ko jokkolinal.
5.7 Jowtol Neper (sewliwol)
Jowtol Neper, walla wi'ee jowtol sewliwol ko ju ol ganndinir-
teengol hono nii:
ˆ w
1
ln(w) = dr, w > 0.
1 r
Dallinaande 7.23
Jowtol Neper ina hisni wonde
ln(ew ) = w.
Tesko: Ko ¡um addani ngol wiyeede jowtol. Ngol yowtat
waylatoonde ju ol jowol. Wiyee ko ngol baklol jowol.
Daliilu. Mbinnden:
ˆ ew
w 1
ln(e ) = dr.
1 r
118
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.7. JOWTOL NEPER (SEWLIWOL)
En ngostoto waylotoonde: pawen r = et :
1. Kannde ki al: so r = 1, hawrata ko t = 0. So r = ew ,
hawrata ko t = w
2. kiiso¡en hi ateende ndee
1 1 et
dr = t d (et ) = t dt = dt
r e e
Ndeen noon, ke en
ˆ ew ˆ w
w 1
ln(e ) = dr = dt = [t ]w0 = w.
1 r 0
En ke ii ko ndaartatno-¡en.
E¡en mbaawi kadi teskaade wonde ln(1) = 0 sabu ko ¡um ki al
hakkunde 1 e hoore mum.
Dallinaande 7.24
Ina hisi wonde, wonande w > 0
eln(w) = w.
Daliilu. En njiyiino wonde ln(ew ) = w wonande kala w. Wadde
ln(eln(w) ) = ln(w).
119
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Nde tawnoo anndinoore ln ina holla en wonde so ln(a) = ln(b)
oon sahaa a = b. Wadde en ke ii
eln(w) = w.
Dallinaande 7.25
Ina hisi wonande kala w, y > 0:
ln(wy) = ln(w) + ln(y).
Daliilu. Mbinnden:
eln(wy) = wy = eln(w) eln(y) = eln(w)+ln(y) .
Ndeen noon, en ke ii ko ndaartatno-¡en.
Teskuya 7.1
Tesko¡en wonde
1
(ln(w))′ = .
w
Ndeen noon so en kuutoriima adal j (w + h) ≈ j (w) + h j′ (w),
120
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 5.7. JOWTOL NEPER (SEWLIWOL)
ke en so h fam¡ii:
ln(1 + h) ≈ h.
Yeru: Ke en wonde ln(1.1) ≈ 0, 1. (E¡en mbaawi yerondirde
¡um e njaru goong¡ungu nguu, tolnoytoongu e 0, 095).
Ekkorde 7.25
Hollu wonande kala w > 0, y ∈ R
ln(wy ) = y ln(w).
Ekkorde 7.25
Hiiso
ˆ 2
w ln(w)dw.
1
Ekkorde 7.25
121
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 5. JUI
Hiiso
ˆ 2
K1 = ln(w)dw
1
ˆ 2
K2 = wn ln(w)dw n ≥ 2.
1
122
Damal 6
Dogge
6.1 Dogge limoreeje
Anndinoore 1.1
Ina wi'ee doggala nder R kala esngu limotoongu limoreeje
laa ¡e. Woni ¡um ko esngu mbaawngu rewindoreede les-
kuu al limoreeje ki e, hono N.
a Doggal = (suite, sequence)
123
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 6. DOGGE
Yeru 1.0
esngu { 1n , n ∈ N∗ } ko doggal. Oon sahaa mbiyen 1n ko
tergal mum kuu nungal. N∗ wona kuu al dewindor¡e mum.
Teskuya 1.1
Doggal ina waawi anndireede tergal mum kuu nungal won-
dude e kuu al mum dewindorgal. Ina aadoraa tonngirde
doggal ngal tergal kuu nungal ngal an , dewindorangal A
hono nii: (an )n∈A . Ter¡e doggal ngal deggondiriri ko no
deggondiral ter¡e A addiri fof. Ndeen noon, ma en kaal ko
fayti e tergal gadanal, ¡immal, tata al, ekn.
E ko fayi e arde, ngam wee tinde binndol ngol, en to¡¡oto
A = N.
Anndinoore 1.2
Doggal (an )n∈N ina wi'ee ko jippitarala (walla ko abbiwalb )
so tawii wonande kala ki al n, an+1 ≥ an (walla an+1 > an ).
Doggal (an )n∈N ina wi'ee ko abbitaralc (e ¡oftondiral, jippi-
wald ) so tawii wonande kala ki al n, an+1 ≤ an (e ¡oftondi-
ral, an+1 < an ).
Yoo n0 won limoral ki al. Doggal (an )n∈N ina wi'ee ñii ngal
124
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 6.1. DOGGE LIMOREEJE
aawo n0 so tawii,
∀n > n0 , an = an0 .
So an0 wonii tegal gadanal doggal ngal, ngaal wiyee ko doggal
ñii ngal.
a Jippitaral = (croissant, non-decreasing)
b abbiwal = (strictement croissant, increasing)
c abbitaral =(décroissant, non-increasing)
d Jippiwal =(strictement décroissant, decreasing)
Anndinoore 1.3
Doggal (an )n∈N ina wi'ee ko joofowal to limoral a so tawii:
∀ε > 0, ∃N ∈ N, ∀n > N, |an − a| < ε.
¡o |.| woni siinde fawtarndea nder R. So ¡um wa¡ii limoral
a ngal wi'ee ko joo rdeb doggal ngal. Winndee
Joof an = a.
n→∞
Ina wi'ee wonde doggal limoreeje ko jooftaralc so tawii ngal
alaa joo rde haa¡tunde.
a Siinde fawtarnde = (Valeur absolue, absolute value)
b Joo rde = (limite, limit)
c Jooftaral = (divergent, divergent)
125
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 6. DOGGE
Ekkorde 1.0
Hollu wonde anndinoore joofgol rokkaande dow-¡oo ndee ina
ha¡i goodal joo r¡e ¡i¡e ceertu¡e wonande doggal gootal.
Ndeen noon so joo rde woodanii doggal, nde wonata ko teel-
nde.
Ekkorde 1.0
Hollu wonde doggal ngal tergal kuu nungal 1
n ko joofowal to
0.
Ekkorde 1.0
Hollu wonde doggal ngal tergal kuu nungal n2 ko jooftoral
feewde +∞.
Ekkorde 1.0
Hollu wonde kala doggal ngal ter¡e mum ngoni nder Z tawa
kadi ko joofowal waawata tan wonde ko ñii ngal aawo won
tolno.
Hol ba¡te nokkiwea mbaaw¡en heen yaltinde wonande Z?
a Ba¡te nokkiwe = (conséquences topologiques, topological conse-
126
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 6.1. DOGGE LIMOREEJE
quences)
Ekkorde 1.0
Yoo (an )n∈N won doggal limoreeje. Yoo b won limoral laa n-
gal tawa
∀n ∈ N, an ≤ b.
Hollu wonde so tawii (an )n∈N ina joofa to a, oon sahaa a ≤ b.
(Joofordea : Kisindoro-¡eeb waas-aa noc ).
Hol hujjad nokkiwiiwa mbaawno-¡en kadi huutoraade?
a Jooforde = (Indication, Hint)
b Hisindaade = (raisonner, to reason)
c Kisindol waas-aa no = (raisonnement par l'absurde, proof by con-
tradiction)
d Hujja = (argument, argument
Anndinoore 1.4
Doggal (an )n∈N ina wi'ee ko doggal Cauchy so tawii:
∀ε > 0, ∃N ∈ N, ∀n > N, ∀m > N, |an − am | < ε.
127
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 6. DOGGE
Ekkorde 1.0
Hollu wonde kala doggal joofowal ko doggal Cauchy.
Anndinoore 1.5
Doggal (an )n∈N ina wi'ee ko kanndangalab so ina woodi limoral
M > 0 tawa:
∀n ∈ N, |an | ≤ M.
a Hanndeede = (être borné, to be bounded)
b Kanndal = (borne, bound)
Anndinoore 1.6
Doggal un is wi'ee ko kanndangal lesa so tawii ina woodi k
tawa:
∀n ∈ N, an ≥ k.
a Doggal kanndangal les = (suite minorée, bounded below sequence)
Anndinoore 1.7
Doggal un is wi'ee ko kanndangal dowa so tawii ina woodi k
128
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 6.1. DOGGE LIMOREEJE
tawa:
∀n ∈ N, an ≤ k.
a Doggal kanndangal dow = (suite majorée, bounded above se-
quence)
Yeru 1.0
Doggal ngal tergal kuu nungal an = 1
n ko kanndirangal les 0.
Kadi ko ngal kanndirangal dow 1:
1
∀n ∈ N, 0 ≤ ≤ 1.
n
Ekkorde 1.0
Hollu wonnde doggal ko kanndangal so tawii e so wonaa ko
ngal kanndangal dow e les.
Teskuya 1.2
Tesko-¡en won ganndinooje men ¡ee kala kuutorii ko jol-
lola dow R, hono ju ol j ganndinirteengol wonande kala
w, y ∈ R j (w, y) = |w − y|. Kono ¡ee ganndinooje fof ina kisa
dow boowe jolliweb ur¡e ¡oon yaajde (hono kala boowal B
cinndangal jollol j). En lomtinat tan |w − y| mba¡ten ¡um
129
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 6. DOGGE
j (w, y) nder ganndinooje ¡ee kala.
E¡en mbaawi nii yaajtinde ¡e to boowe nokkiwiijec (¡een
uri kadi yaajde e boowe jolliwe) so kuutoriima koddiwed
joo rde ndee. Soko noon, alaa e sago pawen mbele nokkiwal
ngal ina wona ceertinoowal ngam teelal joo rde ina hisa.
a Jollol = (distance, distance)
b Boowal jolliwal = (espace métrique, metric space)
c Boowal nokkiwiwal = (espace topologique, topological space)
d Koddiwal = (voisinage, neighbourhood)
Ekkorde 1.0
1. Hollu wonde kala doggal joofowal nder boowal jolliwal
ko kanndangal.
2. Hollu wonde kala doggal Cauchy ko kanndangal.
3. E huutoraade an = (−1)n , hol ko mbaaw-¡en haalde e
nootanndea laa ndal 1. ngal?
a Nootannde = (réciproque, converse)
Dallinaande 1.1
1. Kala doggal jippitaral kanndangal dow ko joofowal.
130
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 6.1. DOGGE LIMOREEJE
2. Kala doggal abbitoral kanndangal les ko joofowal.
Ekkorde 1.1
Hollu wonde ¡ee dogge ko joofooje:
1. an = 1
n3
2. an = 1 − 1n
Ekkorde 1.1
Hollu wonde, wonande kala a ∈ R,
an
Joof = 0.
n→∞ n!
Anndinoore 1.8
Ina wi'ee wonde doggal an ko ganndinirangal duñruñtere so
tawii ina woodi ju ol f e tawa:
(
a0
an+1 = f (an ) wonande kala n ≥ 0.
131
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 6. DOGGE
Ekkorde 1.1
Hollu wonde so tawii doggal an is huu ni maral ngal-¡oo:
an+1 = f (an ),
oon sahaa so tawii ko ngal joofowal to a, ina hisi wonde
a = f (a).
Yeru 1.1
Yoo won doggal ngal-¡oo
(
u0 = 14
un+1 = 34 un + 14 wonande n ≥ 0.
1. Hollu wonde doggal ngal k ganndinirangal duñruñtere,
hol ju ol ngol?
2. Hollu wonde doggal ngal ko kanndangal 1.
3. Hollu wonde doggal ngal ko jippitaral.
4. Hollu wonde doggal ngal ko joofowal. Hol joo rde
ndee?
132
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 6.1. DOGGE LIMOREEJE
Yeru 1.1
Doggal Fibonacci e limoral kae
Doggal Fibonacci ko ganndinirangal ndii-¡oo mbaadi:
(
a0 = a1 = 1
an+2 = an+1 + an wonande n ≥ 0.
Wadde k en:
a2 = a1 + a0 = 1 + 1 = 2
a3 = a2 + a1 = 2 + 1 = 3
a4 = a3 + a2 = 3 + 2 = 5
a5 = a4 + a3 = 5 + 3 = 8
a6 = a5 + a4 = 8 + 5 = 13
a7 = a6 + a5 = 13 + 8 = 21
...jokkira noon.
Doggal Fibonacci ko ayngal sanne. Ina jeyaa e ko dowl-
ini ngal, jotondirde ngal e limoral kae, tonngateengal φ ,
√
potngal e 2 .
1+ 5
Eto¡en dallinde ¡um. Tonngen
an + 1
bn = .
an
133
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 6. DOGGE
Ina laa ti wonde
1
bn+1 = 1 + = f ( bn ) ,
bn
¡o f (w) = 1 + w1 . Wadde bn ko ganndinirangal duñruñtere.
Njiilo¡en joo rde bn , mbiyen nde φ . So nde woodi nde hisnat
ko rewi ¡oo koo:
1
φ = f (φ ) = 1 +
φ
Wadde
φ 2 − φ − 1 = 0.
um, hono nganndir-¡en potindire ¡e tolno 2, ina jogii ¡ee
pirooje:
√
1+ 5
φ1 =
2√
1− 5
φ2 = .
2
Kono nde tawnoo doggal bn ko eydowal wonande kala n,
ngal waawaa joofde e limoral ustowal, ndeen noon ngal njiiloto-
134
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 6.1. DOGGE LIMOREEJE
¡en ngal ko:
√
1+ 5
φ= ≈ 1, 618.
2
Hawra e limoral kae darjungal ngal.
Anndinoore 1.9
Yo (an )n∈N won doggal. Yo φ : N → N won yu noore ab-
boorea N nder N. Doggal tafangal (aφ (n) )n∈N ngal wi'atee
ko les-doggal walla doggal ¡oofangal (an )n∈N .
a Yu noore = (application, map)
Yeru 1.1
Doggal (a2n )n∈N ko les-doggal doggal (an )n∈N ngal.
Teskuya 1.3
Hollude wonde doggal (aφ (n) )n∈N ngal ko les-doggal doggal
(an )n∈N artata ko hollude wonde yu noore φ : N → N ndee
ko abboore.
135
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 6. DOGGE
Ekkorde 1.1
1. Hollu wonde kala yu noore abboore f ummaade e N
feewde e N ina hisni ngal-¡oo jotondiral:
∀n ∈ N, f (n) ≥ n.
(Jooforde: Huutoro duñruñterea ).
2. Mbele e¡en mbaawi tonngude wonde kala doggal limi-
wal abbowal ina huu ni ngal-¡oon jotondiral? Ko
saabii?
3. Wonande hol ¡een ju nooje njogoto-¡en potal nder
ngal-¡oon jotondiral?
a Duñruñtere = (récurrence, induction)
Yo B won boowal [Link]¡el g nder B ina wiyee to ere
ñukornde1 doggal (an )n∈N , so ina woodi les-doggal (an )n∈N joofowal
to g. (No ina ura wee de faamireede, to ere ñukornde doggal
wonata ko to re ¡o ter¡e doggal ngal ñukkondiri haa so a ¯ettii
kala sato ndeen to ere, a tawat heen limoral kaa¡taral2 ter¡e
doggal ngal.)
1 To ere ñukornde = (Valeur d'adhérence, accumulation point)
2 Limoral kaa¡taral = (nombre in ni, in nite number)
136
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 6.1. DOGGE LIMOREEJE
Ekkorde 1.1
1. Dallin wonde kala doggal Cauchy, so heewii-heewii, jo-
gotaa tan ko to ere ñukornde wootere.
2. Dallin wonde kala doggal joofowal ina jogoo etee jogo-
too tan ko to ere ñukornde wootere.
Teskuya 1.4
Ekorde dow-¡oo ndee ina holla jemmondirala hakkunde joof-
gol les-doggal gootal doggal Cauchy e joofgol kala les-doggal
ngal-¡oon doggal Cauchy. Wadde, so e¡en njogii doggal
Cauchy, so en kollii wonde engal jogii les-doggal joofowal, ina
wayno en kollii wonde les-dogge maggal ¡ee fof ko joofooje;
ndeen noon en kollii wonde kanngal e hoyre maggal ko ngal
joofowal. Ngati ko ngal les-doggal hoyre maggal.
a Jemmondiral = (équivalence, equivalence)
Ina wi'ee joo rde dowrowre3 doggal (an )n∈N ngal, kanndal
dowrowal4 kuu al to e ñukor¡e mum. Nde tonngirtee ko Joof an .
Hono noon ne, ina wi'ee joo rde lesre5 doggal (an )n∈N kanndal
3 Joo rde dowrowre = (limite supérieure, limit superior)
4 Kanndal dowrowal = (borne supérieure, upper bound)
5 Joo rde lesre = (limit inférieure, limit inferior)
137
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 6. DOGGE
lesal6 kuu al to e ñukor¡e mum. Ende tonngiree Joof an .
Anndinoore 1.10
Boowal jolliwal B ina wiyee ko timmungal so tawii kala doggal
Cauchy nder B ko joofowal.
Anndinoore 1.11
So B wonii boowal jolliwal, les-kuu ala M nder B ina wi'ee
ko cukkalalb so tawii kala doggal nder M ina jogii to ere
ñukorde.
a Les-kuu al = (sous-ensemble, subset)
b Kuu al cukkulal = (ensemble compact, compact set)
Teskuya 1.5
Cukkalingol kuu al ko anndinoore nokkiwiweere. Nde an-
ndinirtee ko marala Borel-Lebesgue. E¡en mbaawi dallinde
wonde e nder boowal jolliwal, maral Borel-Lebesgue ina jem-
mondiri e anndinoore rokkaande dow-too ndee. E¡en mbaawi
6 Kanndal lesal = (borne inférieure, lower bound)
138
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 6.1. DOGGE LIMOREEJE
kadi dallinde Dallinaande aroore ndee:
a Maral = (propriété, property)
Dallinaande 1.2
Nder boowala ngal ittiri haa¡tundib , kuu e cukkule ko gud-
dii¡e kowaa¡e, e¡um nootolinic .
a Ittiri = (dimension, dimension)
b Ittiri haa¡tundi = (dimension nie, nite dimension)
c Konngol ina wiyee ina nootolini so tawii nootannde (réciproque)
mum ina goong¡i
Caggal nde nganndu-¡en Dallinaande dow-¡oo ndee, huutoro ekko-
r¡e go¡¡e gadii¡e ngam wa¡de ekkorde les-¡oo ndee:
Ekkorde 1.2
Hollu wonde kuu al laa ¡e, hono R, so sinndanaama siinde
fawtarnde, hono | · |, ko boowal jolliwal timmungal.
Ina wi'ee boowal Banach, boowal joopiwal78 etiwal9 tawa ko
timmungal wonande jollol cehotoongol e etal10 hee.
7 Boowal joopiwal = (espace vectoriel, vector space)
8 Joopol = (vecteur, vector)
9 Boowal etiwal = (espace normé, normed space)
10 etal = (norme, norm)
139
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 6. DOGGE
Ekkorde 1.2
Hollu wonde (R, | · |) ko boowal Banach.
(Joofannde: Woni haala kaa ko hollude wonde yu noore
w : 7→ |w| ko etal dow R). Wadde pot-¡aa ko hollude
wonde:
1. |w| ≥ 0 wonande kala w ∈ R; |w| = 0 so tawii e so so
wonaa w = 0;
2. |w + y| ≤ |w| + |y| wonande kala w, y ∈ R;
3. |ℓw| = |ℓ||w| wonande kala w, ℓ ∈ R.
Anndinoore 1.12
Ina wi'ee boowal Hilbert kala boowal Banach ngal etal mum
iwi e cowal nderiwala .
a Cowal nderiwal = (produit scalaire, inner product)
Ekkorde 1.2
Hollu wonde R ko boowal Hilbert .
(Jooforde: Hollu yu noore (w, y) 7→ wy ko cowal nderiwal
140
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 6.1. DOGGE LIMOREEJE
dow R, kadi etal |.| ngal ko heen iwi).
Ekkorde 1.2
Hollu wonde boowal Euclide Rn ceangal etal
! 12
n
(w) = ∑ w2j , w = (w1 , w2 , · · · , wn )
j =1
ko boowal Hilbert.
Teskuya 1.6
Boowal Hilbert diiñorgal ko l 2 , hono boowal dogge a = (an )n∈N
kisnu¡e
! 21
∞
(a) = ∑ a2j < ∞.
j =0
Ekkorde mo¯¯ere maa won dallinde wonde yu noore ndee
ko etal timmungal tigi, etee nde sehaa ko e cowal nderiwal.
141
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 6. DOGGE
142
Damal 7
Callaleeje
7.1 Callaleeje limeweeje
Anndinoore 1.1
Kelmeendi:
Hoolkisaade sallaleerea yi¡i wiyde ko wi¡de joofgol mum:
mbele ko nde joofoore walla ko nde jooftarnde.
Joo rde sallaleere, saanga nde nde woodi, ina wiyee kadi
eydal sallaleere ndee.
a Sallaleere = (série, series)
143
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 7. CALLALEEJE
Anndinoore 1.2
Yo un won tergal kuu nungal doggal limewal maaniwal, ter-
gal SN = ∑Nn=0 un wi'etee ko eydal keeringal ngal tolno N
wonande sallaleere anndinirteende funo ((un ), (SN )).
Anndinoore 1.3
Sallaleere ina wi'ee ko joofoore so tawii doggal eyde keerii¡e
mayre ko joofowal.
Dallinaande 1.1
Sallaleere nde tergal kuu nungal un joofataa so wonaa
Joof un = 0.
n→∞
Reento: So ¡um wonii ne addantaa ¡um joofde. Wiyaa tan
ko so ¡um wonaani nde joofataa.
Ekkorde 1.1
Hujjin dallinaade dow-¡oo ndee.
144
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 7.1. CALLALEEJE LIMEWEEJE
Dallinaande 1.2
Wonande n0 ∈ N∗ , callaleeje ∑n≥0 un e ∑n≥n0 un njiydi sewlo,
¡um rti ko maa wonii kanje ¡i¡i kala ¡e njoo i WALLA
¡e njooftarii. Wootere waawaa wonde huunde, wo¡nde ndee
lutndoo.
Ekkorde 1.2
Hujjin dallinaande dow-¡oo ndee.
Anndinoore 1.4
So tawii tergal kuu nungal sallaleere, hono un , ko ngal doggal
nok etiwiwala , sallaleere ndee wi'ee ko nok etiwere. Nde
joofata ko so tawii e so wonaa |r| < 1, tawa r yerngob ngoo.
a Doggal nok etiwiwal = (suite géométrique, geormetric sequence)
b Yerngo doggal = (raison de la suite, ratio)
Dallinaande 1.3
Sallaleere nok etiwere yahdunde e doggal ngal tergal pu¡¡or-
gal u0 e ngal yerngo r joofata ko stswa |r| < 1, kadi eydal
145
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 7. CALLALEEJE
mum wonata ko :
u0
= ∑ un = 1 − r .
n≥0
a stsw = (so tawii e so wonaa)
Ekkorde 1.3
Dallin jeñtule dokkaa¡e e dallinaande dow-¡oo ndee.
Anndinoore 1.5
Yo un won tergal kuu nungal sallaleere maaniwere, ndeen
ina wiyee ko nde ter¡e ustareabcd so tawii wonande kala
n ∈ N, un ≥ 0.
a limoral ustoral = (nombre positif, non-negative number)
b limoral eydal = (nombre strictement positif, positive number)
c limoral eytaral = (nombre négatif, non-positive number)
d limoral ustal = (nombre strictement négatif, negative number)
Dallinaande 1.4
Kala Sallaleere nde ter¡e ustare joofota ko stsw doggal eyde
146
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 7.1. CALLALEEJE LIMEWEEJE
keerii¡e mayre ko howaande.
Ekkorde 1.4
Rokku hujja nda¡¡iika dallinaande dow-¡oo ndee.
Dallinaande 1.5
Yo un et yn ngon ter¡e kuu tidin¡e callalleeje S et T . Njoo¡-
toro¡en wonde ∀n ∈ N, 0 ≤ un ≤ vn . Oon sahaa,
So T ko joofoore, S wonata kadi ko joofoore;
So S ko jooftarde, T wonata kadi ko jooftarde.
Anndinoore 1.6
Ina wi'ee sallaleere Riemann ndee-¡ee
1
S= ∑ nα .
n≥1
Nde joofata ko stsw α > 1.
147
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 7. CALLALEEJE
Dallinaande 1.6
Ngal-¡oo potal ko teskinngal:
1 π2
∑ n2 = 6
.
n≥1
Ke en wadde gootal e ñogge dokkooje limoral π :
s
1
π = 6 ∑ 2.
n≥1 n
Teskuya 1.1
Sallaleere ∑ n1 ina innee `sallaleere sañreweere'a . Nde joofata
nde tawnoo α foti ¡oo ko e 1. Ko uri laa tude, e¡en njogii
ndii njeñtudi:
!
N
1
Joof ∑ − ln N = γ,
n=1 n
N→∞
¡oo γ ≈ 0, 5772156649 ina innee ñii ngal Euler.
a sallaleere sañreweere = (série harmonique, harmonic series)
148
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 7.1. CALLALEEJE LIMEWEEJE
Ekkorde 1.6
1. Hollu wonde ju ol f : w 7→ 1
w ko jippiwol dow R+ .
2. Yaltin heen wonde wonande kala k ≥ 1 ene hisi
ˆ k +1
1
f (t )dt ≤ .
k k
3. Hollu ndeen noon wonde
n
1
ln(n + 1) ≤ ∑ k.
k =1
4. Tonngu heen huunde wonande sallaleere sañreweere.
Anndinoore 1.7
Sallaleere Bertrand ko anndiniraande
1
∑ nα (ln n)β .
n≥2
Ende joofa stsw α > 1 WALLA (α = 1 ekadi β > 1).
149
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 7. CALLALEEJE
Teskuya 1.2
Sallaleere Bertrand yaajtinat nde Riemann ndee. Ngati sal-
laleere Riemann ko nde Bertrand tawa β = 0.
7.1.1 Koolkisi ¯eewndor¡i sewlo sallaleere
Dallinaande 1.7
Yo wood sallaleere nde tergal kuu nungal un tawa ∀n ∈ N un ̸=
0. Nganndinen
un+1
γl = Joof
n→+∞ un
un + 1
γd = Joof .
n→+∞ un
Koolkisol d'Alembert wi'i ko:
• So γd < 1, oon sahaa sallaleere ndee ko joofoore;
• So γl > 1, oon sahaa sallaleere ndee ko jooftarnde;
• So γl ≤ 1 ≤ γd , alaa heen ko ronki wonde. Ko maa
wi¡ee haa ura ¡oon nde anndee.
150
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 7.1. CALLALEEJE LIMEWEEJE
Dallinaande 1.8
Yo wood sallaleere nde tergal kuu nungal un tawa ∀n ∈ N un >
0. Nganndinen
√
γ = Joof n un .
n→+∞
Koolkisol Cauchy wi'i ko
• So γ < 1, oon sahaa sallaleere ndee ko joofoore;
• So γ > 1, oon sahaa sallaleere ndee ko jooftarnde;
• So γ = 1, alaa heen ko ronki wonde. Ko maa wi¡ee
haa ura ¡oon nde anndee.
Anndinoore 1.8
Ina wi'ee sallaleere yontinoore kala sallaleere nde tergal mum
kuu nungal un hisni: maande (−1)n un ko ñii nde.
Dallinaande 1.9
Sallaleere yontinoore ko joofoore so tawii ende hisni ¡ee pawe
¡i¡e:
1. Joof un = 0
n→∞
151
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 7. CALLALEEJE
2. Doggal (|un |)n∈N ngal ko jippowal.
Les ¡ee pawe ina jogaa:
∑ un ≤ |u p+1 |.
n≥p+1
Yeru 1.9
(−1)n (−1)n
Sallaleere ∑ n ko yontinoore sabu (−1)n × =
n }
| {z
T −K doggal ngal
1
n> 0.
Ko nde joofoore sabu:
(−1)n
1. n − −−−→ 0
n→+∞
(−1)n
2. n = 1n , ko ¡un tergal kuu nungal doggal jippowal.
Sallaleere nde tergal kuu nungal un ina wi'ee ko joofoore paw-
tarol1 so tawii sallaleere nde tergal kuu nungal |un | ko joofoore.
Sallaleere ina wi'ee ¡esa-joofoore2 so tawii ko nde joofoore kono
nde wonaa joofoore pawtarol.
1 Joofgol pawtarol = (convergence absolue, absolute convergence)
2 esa-joofgol = (Semi-convergence, Semi-convergence)
152
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 7.2. CALLALEEJE PAYANEWEEJE
Ekkorde 1.9
Hollu wonde kala sallaleere nder R joofoore pawtarol ko
joofoore.
Ko mbaaw-¡en haalde e sallaleere joofoore etola (woni, sal-
laleere nde tergal ∥un ∥ ko joofoore, tawa ∥ · ∥ ko etal) nder
boowal Banach?
a Joofgol etol = (Convergence normale, normal convergence)
Yeru 1.9
Sallaleere yontinoore yeru ennungu nguu ko ¡esa-joofoore
(−1)n
ngati | n |= 1n , ko tergal kuu nungal sallaleere sañreweere;
ndeen en nji'ii ko jooftarnde.
7.2 Callaleeje payan¡eweeje
Anndinoore 2.1
Ina wi'ee sallaleere payan¡eweerea kala sallaleere anndinir-
teede:
S(w) = ∑ an wn .
n≥0
153
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 7. CALLALEEJE
Ko ¡um eyde kaa¡tar¡e payan¡e.
a Sallaleere payan¡eweere = (Série entière, power series)
Anndinoore 2.2
Yo won A = {r ∈ R+ ∥ ∑n≥0 |an |rn < ∞}, wudduwol joofgola
W sallaleere ∑ an wn anndinirtee ko W = DowA (hono kanndal
dowrowal A). Tesko-¡en wonde W ∈ R+ ∪ {∞}. Sallaleere
ndee ina joofa wonande kala w tawa |w| < W , nde joofataa
wonande kala w tawa |w| > W . So |w| = W alaa heen ko
jombi.
a Wudduwol joofgol = (rayon de convergence, radius of convergence)
154
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 7.2. CALLALEEJE PAYANEWEEJE
7.2.1 Laabi kiisor¡i wudduwol joofgol
Dallinaande 2.10
Yoo won sallaleere ∑ an wn , kuulal Cauchy-Hadamard wi'i ko
wudduwol joofgol mayre ina hawra e:
1
W= .
Joof n |an |
p
n→∞
Dallinaande 2.11
Yoo won sallaleere ∑ an wn , kuulal D'Alembert wi'i ko wud-
duwol joofgol mayre ina hawra e:
1
W= .
Joof | ana+n 1 |
n→∞
Dallinaande 2.12
Yoo won sallaweere payan¡eweere ∑(an + bn )wn , wudduwol
joofgol mayre W ina hisni W ≥ Fam(Wa ,Wb ) tawa Wa et Wb ko
wudduwi joofgol callaleeje ∑ an wn et ∑ bn wn . oo Fam(r,t )
155
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 7. CALLALEEJE
ruttata ko famarde hakkunde r e t .
So tawii Ra ̸= Rb , ina hisi wonde W = Fam(Wa ,Wb ).
Anndinoore 2.3
Yoo won ndee-¡oo sallaleere payan¡eweere S(w) = ∑n+=∞0 an wn .
Caltala mayre ina anndiniree
+∞
S′ ( w ) = ∑ (n + 1)an+1 wn .
n=0
S′ e S njiydi wudduwol joofgol.
a Caltal = (dérivée, derivative)
Anndinoore 2.4
Yoo won sallaleere ndee-¡oo S(w) = ∑n+=∞0 an wn . Ina hisi:
ˆ w +∞ !
+∞
n an n+1
∑ an y dy = ∑ w .
0 n=0 n=0 n + 1
Sallaleere ki al ndee e S njiydi wudduwol.
156
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 7.2. CALLALEEJE PAYANEWEEJE
Anndinoore 2.5
Ju ol f : R → R ina wi'ee na amtoo e sallaleere payan¡e-
weere e sato to ere w0 ∈ R so tawii ina woodi sallaleere
∑ an wn e laa ngal W > 0 tawa:
+∞
∀w ∈ ]w0 −W , w0 + W [, f (w) = ∑ an (w − w0 )n .
n=0
Hono ngal-¡oo amtal ko teelngal.
eydal sallaleere nok etiwere ko huutorteende sanne e am-
tal sallaleere payan¡eweere.
157
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 7. CALLALEEJE
7.3 Callaleeje ju i
7.3.1 Dogge ju i
Anndinoore 3.1
Yoo ( fn )n∈N won doggal ju i ummaade e annde A ⊂ R faade
e R. Ina wi'ee wonde doggal ngal ko joofowal bee ngola to
ju ol f dow lowreb D so tawii wonande kala w to¡¡aa¡o
nder D, doggal limewal ( fn (w))n∈N ina joofa to f (w). f wi'ee
joo rde wee nde ( fn )n∈N .
a Joofgol bee ngol = (Convergence simple, simple convergence)
b Lowre = (domaine, domain)
Anndinoore 3.2
Yoo ( fn )n∈N won doggal ju i ummaade A ⊂ R faade e R.
Ina wi'ee doggal ngal ko joofowal wootmbaadiwola to f so
tawii
Joof ∥ fn − f ∥∞ = 0.
n→∞
Tawa ∥g∥∞ = Dow|g(w)|.
w∈A
a Joofgol wootmbaadiwol = (convergence uniforme, uniform conver-
gence)
158
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 7.3. CALLALEEJE JUI
Dallinaande 3.13
Joofgol wootmbaadiwol dow D ina yeñtina joofgol bee ngol
dow D.
Ekkorde 3.13
Eto dallinde ¡um.
Dallinaande 3.14
Joofgol wootmbaadiwol ina da¡nda jokkolinolab , ¡um woni;
so tawii wonande kala n, fn ina jokkolini to to ere a, oon
sahaa joo rde wootmbaadiwere f ndee ne jokkolinat to a.
a Jokkolingol = (continuité, continuity)
b Ju ol jokkolinol = (foncion continue, continuous function)
Dallinaande 3.15
Yoo ( fn )n∈N won doggal ju i jokkolini joofowal wootm-
baadiwol to f , ndeen noon wonande kala annde [a, b] ⊂ D,
159
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 7. CALLALEEJE
´b
doggal ki e ( a fn )n∈N ko joofowal, kadi
ˆ b ˆ b
Joof fn = f.
n→∞ a a
Anndinoore 3.3
Yoo ( fn )n∈N won doggal ju i ngal fedde caltama C1 joofowal
to f . Yoo ( fn′ )n∈N won doggal calte ¡ee joofowal to ju ol
g. Oon sahaa ( fn )n∈N ko joofowal dow kala annde to f ,
ngol-¡oon ko ngol fedde C1 ; kadi engol hisni f ′ = g.
a Fedde caltam Cm
ko fedde ju i caltintoo¡i haa tolno m, tawa ngal-
¡oon caltal m- al ko jokkolinal. Yeru: C0 ko fedde ju i jokkolini, C1
ko nde ju i ¡i caltal mumen garwaniiwal jokkolini, ekn.
7.3.2 Callaleeje ju i
Anndinoore 3.4
Ina wi'ee wonde sallaleere ju i ko joofoore bee ngol so dog-
gal eyde keerii¡e mum Sn (w) = ∑nk=0 fk (w) ina joofa bee n-
gol.
160
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 7.3. CALLALEEJE JUI
Anndinoore 3.5
Ina wi'ee sallaleere ju i ko joofoore pawtarola so tawii ngal-
¡oo doggal eyde keerii¡e Sn (w) = ∑nk=0 | fk (w)| ina joofa
bee ngol.
a Joofgol pawtarol = (convergence absolue, absolute convergence)
Anndinoore 3.6
Ina wiyee sallaleere ju i ko joofoore wootmbaadiwol so ngal-
¡oo doggal eyde keerii¡e Sn = ∑nk=0 fk ko joofowal wootm-
baandiwol.
Anndinoore 3.7
Ina wi'ee sallaleere ju i ko joofoore etiwol so tawii ndee
sallaleere limeweere
+∞
∑ ∥ fn ∥∞
k =0
ko joofoore.
161
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 7. CALLALEEJE
Dallinaande 3.16
Hakkunde sifaaji joofgol ina wa¡i ngal-¡oo jotondiral:
Joofgol etiwol ina yeñtina joofgol wootmbaadiwol, ngol-
¡oon yeñtina joofgol bee ngol.
Ko ¡um saabii, e nder gollal, so yi¡aama holleede joofgol
wootmbaadiwol ina hasii yim e ndewra e joofgol etiwol.
Dallinaande 3.17
Hono no dogge nii, joofgol wootmbaadiwol callaleeje ina da¡nda
jokkolingol.
Dallinaande 3.18
E huutoraade joo¡tor¡e hono ¡e dogge ¡ee, faytude e ki in-
gol e caltingol, e¡en njogii:
ˆ b +∞
! ˆ +∞ b
∑ fn (w) dw = ∑ fn (w)dw
a n=0 n=0 a
!′
+∞ +∞
∑ f n (w) = ∑ fn′ (w).
n=0 n=0
ee ñogge nji¡i wi'ide ko e¡en mbaawi, les pawe kuu naa¡e,
162
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 7.4. CALLALEEJE FOURIER
waamtondirde eydal e ki al, walla eydal e caltal.
7.4 Callaleeje Fourier
Anndinoore 4.1
So f : R → R woni ju ol ta¯e-ta¯e jokkolinola tawa ko ngol
2π -daaw¡inolbcd , e¡en nganndinira nii piytir¡e Fourier
• Fiytirde Fourier jil unde nde tolno n:
ˆ π
1
cn ( f ) = f (w)e−inw dw.
2π −π
• Piytir¡e Fourier co etiwiijee :
ˆ
1 π
an ( f ) = f (w) cos (nw)dw,
π −π
ˆ
1 π
bn ( f ) = f (w) sin (nw)dw.
π −π
Ju ol f nde tawnoo ko 2π -daaw¡inol, so ngol wonii kadi
puniwolf (walla puntarolg ), piytir¡e bn (walla an ) ko ndig¡u¡eh .
a Jokkolingol ta¯e-ta¯e = (Continuité par morceaux, piecewise con-
tinuity)
163
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 7. CALLALEEJE
b f ne wi'ee ko 2π -daaw¡inol so tawii wonande kala w, f (w + 2π ) =
f (w). 2π wi'ee ko daawal f .
c Ju ol daaw¡inol = (fonction périodique, periodic function)
d Daawal = (période, period)
e Co etiwal = (trigonométrie, trigonometry)
f Wonde puniwum = (être pair, to be even)
g Wonde puntarum = (être impair, to be odd)
h Ndig¡ude = (s'annuler, to vanish)
Teskuya 4.1
Kala sahaa b0 = 0 sabu sin(0 × w) = 0.
Anndinoore 4.2
Sallaleere Fourier nde f anndinirtee ko:
a0
S( f )(w) = ∑ cn einw = + ∑ an cos (nw) + ∑ bn sin (nw).
2 n≥1
n∈Z n≥1
Dallinaande 4.19
So tawii f ko e fedde C1 ta¯e-ta¯e tawa kadi ko ngol 2π -
daaw¡inol. Dallinaande Dirichlet wi'i ko sallaleere Fourier
f (w− )+ f (w+ )
f ko joofoore bee ngol R to 2
164
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 7.4. CALLALEEJE FOURIER
Tawa f (t + ) = Joof f (t + h) et f (t − ) = Joof f (t − h).
h→0+ h→0+
Wadde so f wonii jokkolinol eydal sallaleere ndee fota e f
(nde tawnoo oon sahaa f (w− ) = f (w+ ) = f (w)).
Dallinaande 4.20
So f wonii ngol fedde C2 , sallaleere mum Fourier ko joofoore
etiwol feewde e mum.
Teskuya 4.2
Hoto njejjitee joofgol etiwol ina yeñtina joofgol wootm-
baadiwol.
Dallinaande 4.21
So f wonii jokkolinol e'kadi 2π -daaw¡inol walla f wona ki a-
toongol. Oon sahaa ina jogaa potal Bessel-Parseval:
ˆ 2π
1 |a0 |2 1
| f (w)|2 dw = + ∑ (|an |2 + |bn |2 ) = ∑ |cn |2 .
2π 0 4 2 n≥1 n∈Z
165
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 7. CALLALEEJE
166
Damal 8
Ki al Lebesgue
8.1 Ju i etotoo¡i
Anndinoore 1.1
Yoo T = [a, b] won annde, ¡o a ≤ b ∈ R, F wona esngu
les-kuu e T . Ina wi'ee F ko hinndea dow T so ina hisni ¡ee
pawe:
1. ∅, T ∈ F ;
2. So Ai ∈ F ∀i ∈ N∗ , oon sahaa ∈ F;
S
i∈N∗ Ai
3. So A ∈ F , oon sahaa kA ∈ F , tawa k A ko kebbital A
nder T .
167
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 8. KIAL LEBESGUE
a Hinnde = (Tribu, sigma algebra)
Anndinoore 1.2
Hinnde Borela ko hinnde famaweereb huu nunde ndee-¡oo
fawre:
Wonande kala α < β , annde ]α, β [∩T ndee jeyaa ko e B.
Hinnde Borel dow T in tonngee BT .
Nge¡on nder BT ina innee Boreliije (teel. Boreliwal). Kala
funo (T , BT ) ina innee boowal etatoongal.
a Hinnde Borel = (Tribu Borelienne, Borel sigma algebra). Emile
Borel (1871-1956) ko hiisiweejo Faraysenaaje.
b famaweere, pamawum = (minimal, minimal)
Teskuya 1.1
Nge¡on hinnde ngonata ko kuu e.
Dallinaande 1.1
Hinnde Borel dow T ko hinnde famaweere loownde kala gud-
ditii¡e a T . um ina jemmondiri e wi'ide ko hinnde famaweere
168
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 8.1. JUI ETOTOOI
loownde guddii¡eb T .
a Kuu al gudditiingal = (ensemble ouvert, open set)
b Kuu al guddingal = (un ensemble fermé, closed set)
Anndinoore 1.3
Ju ol f : T → R ina wi'ee ko etotoongola (walla boreliwol)
so tawii,
{w ∈ X : f (w) < γ} ∈ B, ∀γ ∈ R.
a Ju ol etotoongol = (fonction mesurable, measurable function)
Dallinaande 1.2
1. Kala ju ol jokkolinol ko etotoongol.
2. So f e g ngonii ju i etotoo¡i, oon sahaa f + g, f g,
f
g , f ∨ g, f ∧ g, f ◦ g ngonata ko etotoo¡i, tawa f ∨ g =
Maw( f , g) et f ∧ g = Fam( f , g).
3. Yoo ( fn )n won doggol ju i etotoo¡i, oon sahaa Dow fn ,
Les fn , Joof fn , Joof fn ko etotoo¡i ngonata. So tawii
( fn )n yantiniino heen joofde to ju ol f , oon sahaangol-
¡oon kadi wonatnoo ko etotoongol.
4. Yoo won Ω ⊂ T , ju ol ganndinirangol f (w) = 1Ω (w) =
169
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 8. KIAL LEBESGUE
1 so w ∈ Ω walla 0 so w ∈ T \Ω ko etotoongol. Ngol
ju ol wi'etee ko ju ol joofotoongol Ω.
Anndinoore 1.4
Ju ol ina wi'ee bee ngol kala ju ol f ciforiingol hono:
n
∑ ck 1Γ (w), tawa Γi ∩ Γ j = ∅ ∀i ̸= j, Γk = T .
[
f (w) = k
k =1 k
Dallinaande 1.3
1. Wonande kala ju ol etotoongol f , ina woodi doggal
ju i bee ¡i joofowal to f .
2. So f wonii etotoongol tawa kadi ko ustoral, ngal-¡oon
doggal bee ¡i ina waawi mahreede no ngal wonirta
jippitaral.
3. So f wonii etotoongol tawa kadi ko kowangol, ngal-
¡oon doggal bee ¡i ina waawi mahreede no ngal wonirta
joofowal wootmbaandiwol.
8.2 etirgal
170
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 8.2. ETIRGAL
Anndinoore 2.1
Yoo T won annde, B wona hinnde Borel dow mayre. etirgal
dow (T , B) ko kala ju ol µ : B → R+ kisnungol:
• µ (∅) = 0;
• Kala doggal les-kuu e ¡i¡i-¡i¡i denndareabc {An } ⊂ B,
µ( ∞n=1 An ) = ∑n=1 µ (An ).
S ∞
Ndeen noon µ (T ) wi'atee ko ñisre huu nunde etirgal µ
ngal. So tawii µ (T ) < ∞, wi'ee wonde µ ko kaa¡tungal.
(T , B, µ ) ina innee boowal etangal.
a Denndaral = (Disjonction, Disjunction)
b Kuu e ¡i¡e A e B ina mbi'eee ko denndare so tawii alaa ge¡el ngel
¡e ndenndi; winndee A ∩ B = ∅.
c Kuu e nder doggal (A ) ina mbi'ee ko ¡i¡i-¡i¡i denndare so tawii
n
ko ¡i ¡e ceertu¡e ¯ettaa¡e ko denndare: woni, kala Ai e A j tawa i ̸= j,
Ai ∩ A j = ∅.
Yeru 2.3
1. Ñisre Diraca δw0 . Yoo won w0 ∈ T . Wonande kala
A ∈ B,
1, so w0 ∈ A
δw0 (A) =
0, so ¡um alaa
171
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 8. KIAL LEBESGUE
2. etirgal limo.
µ (A) = keeweendi nge¡on ngonkon nder A.
a Paul Dirac (1902-1984) ko hiisiweejo- alliweejo Biritaninaajo.
Dallinaande 2.4
Yoo T won annde, B wona hinnde Borel dow mayre. Ina
woodi etuirgal teelngal λ dow (T , B) jogingal kaa-¡oo sifa:
wonande kala ]a, b[⊂ T ,
λ ([a, b]) = b − a.
Ngal-¡oon etirgal λ innatee ko etirgal Lebesgue.
Tesko¡en wonande kala a ∈ T , λ (a) = λ ([a, a]) = 0. Ko ¡um
addi ¡ee-¡oo pote:
λ ([a, b]) = λ (]a, b]) = λ ([a, b[) = λ (]a, b[) = b − a.
Teskuya 2.1
λ ([a, b]) hawrata ko e njuuteendi annde [a, b], hono b − a.
172
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 8.2. ETIRGAL
Dallinaande 2.5
Yoo µ won etirgal dow (T , B).
• Yoo ngon A1 , A2 ∈ B tawa A1 ⊂ A2 , oon sahaa µ (A1 ) ≤
µ ( A2 ) .
• Yoo won doggal {An } ⊂ B jippitaral e manaa jollogola ,
hono A1 ⊂ A2 ⊂ .... Oon sahaa
∞
An ) = Joof µ (An ).
[
µ(
n→∞
n=1
• Yoo won doggal {An } ⊂ T tawa ko abbitaral, e maanaa
jollogol, tawa kadi µ (A1 ) < ∞. Oon sahaa
∞
An ) = Joof µ (An ).
\
µ(
n→∞
n=1
a Jollogol = (Inclusion, Inclusion)
Anndinoore 2.2
Kuu al borelliwal P ina wi'ee ko paalkisaangal etirgal µ so
tawii µ (P) = 0.
173
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 8. KIAL LEBESGUE
Ina wi'ee wonde konngol (K ) ko goonga µ -¡esi kuu nal (walla
tan "goonga ¡esi kuu nal") dow borelliwal T so (K ) ina
goong¡i dow T ustangal P, tawa P ko paalkisangal µ . Ina
wi'ee kadi konngol (K ) ngol ina hisi ¡esi kuu nal dow T .
8.3 Ki al Lebesgue
Anndinoore 3.1
Yoo won ju ol bee ngol
n
f (w) = ∑ ck 1Γ (w)
k
k =1
tawa ck en fof ko ustare. Wadde f ko ustaral. Ndeen noon
ki al Lebesguea f anndinirtee ko ndaa-nii:
ˆ n
f dµ = ∑ ck µ (Γk ).
T k =1
a Henri Lebesgue (1871-1941) ko hiisiweejo faraysenaajo
Anndinoore 3.2
Yoo f : T → R+ won ju ol etotoongol. Oon sahaa en
nji'iino ina woodi doggal jippitoral ju i bee ¡i ustari ( fn )n
174
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 8.3. KIAL LEBESGUE
joofowal to f . Ndeen noon ki al Lebesgue f ko nii ann-
dinirtee: ˆ ˆ
f dµ = Joof fn dµ.
T n→∞ T
Njeñtudi ki al ngal fawaaki e doggal ( fn ) cu angal. E'kadi,
ˆ ˆ
f dµ = Dow gdµ, g bee ngol ustarol, tawa g ≤ f .
T T
Anndinoore 3.3
Ju ol etotoongol f ina wi'ee ko ki otoongol wonande
etirgal µ dow boriwal Ω so tawii:
ˆ
| f |dµ < ∞.
Ω
Ndeen noon,
ˆ ˆ ˆ
f dµ = +
f dµ − f − dµ,
T T T
tawa f + = f ∨ 0 e f − = (− f ) ∨ 0 ko ju i ustari etotoo¡i.
ee mare ina kisani ki al Lebesgue:
175
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 8. KIAL LEBESGUE
Dallinaande 3.6
1. Yoo 0 ≤ f ≤ g ngon ju i etotoo¡i, µ wona etirgal,
ina jogaa ˆ ˆ
f dµ ≤ gdµ.
T T
2. Yoo f et g ngon ju i etotoo¡i, µ wona etirgal, ina
jogaa
ˆ ˆ ˆ
∀α ∈ R, (α f + g)dµ = α f dµ + gdµ.
T T T
3. Yoo f won ju ol ki otoongol, µ wona etirgal, ina
jogaa ˆ ˆ
f dµ ≤ | f |dµ.
T T
Yeru 3.6
Yoo f won ju ol jokkolinol, w0 ∈ T , δw0 wona ñisre Dirac
ˆ
f dδw0 = f (w0 ).
T
176
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 8.3. KIAL LEBESGUE
Dallinaande 3.7
Yoo f won ju ol ki ol e maanaa Riemann tawa kadi ina
hi oo e maanaa Lebesgue, ndeen noon ki e ¡i¡e ¡ee
potata.
Teskuya 3.1
ˆ b ˆ
f (w)dw = f dλ ,
a [a,b]
| {z } | {z }
Maanaa Riemann Maanaa Lebesgue
¡o λ woni etirgal Lebesgue.
8.3.1 Dallinaa¡e diiñor¡e
Dallinaande joofgol ñii kuccol:
Dallinaande 3.8
Yoo ( fn )n∈N won doggal ju i jippitari etotoo¡i ustari dow
(T , B, µ ), joofowal bee ngol to f . Ndeen noon f ko etotoon-
gol, e'kadi ˆ ˆ
Joof fn dµ = f dµ.
n→∞
177
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 8. KIAL LEBESGUE
Dallinaande 3.9
Yoo ( fn )n∈N won doggal ju i etotoo¡i ustari. Ina jogaa
ndee-¡oo dallinaande Fatoua
ˆ ˆ
Joof fn dµ ≤ Joof fn dµ.
n→∞ n→∞
a Pierre Fatou (1878 - 1929) ko hiisiweejo Faraysenaajo.
Dallinaande joofgol konangol (ngol Lebesgue):
Dallinaande 3.10
Yoo ( fn )n∈N won doggal ju i tawa ∀n ∈ N | fn | ≤ g, ¡o g
woni ju ol (ngol fawaaki e n) ki otoongol. Yoo f won
joo rde wee nde doggal ( fn )n∈N ngal. Oon sahaa f ko ki o-
toongal, etee ˆ ˆ
Joof fn dµ = f dµ.
n→∞
E¡en mbaawi yiyrude ¡um no baamtondiral hakkunde joof-
gol e ki al.
8.3.2 Ju i ganndiniraa¡i ki e
Yoo (T , B, µ ) won boowal etangal, Λ wona udditiingal nder R
walla nder C. Yoo won ju ol f : T × Λ → R kisnungol: ∀λ ∈ Λ
178
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 8.3. KIAL LEBESGUE
cu angal, f (., λ ) ko ki otoongol. Nganndinen ju ol
ˆ
F (λ ) = f (w, λ )dµ (w).
T
Ndokken ¡oo pawe jon¡e1 jokkolingol e ceertingol ju ol F ngol.
Dallinaande 3.11
So pawe garooje les ¡ee kuu naama, oon sahaa F ko jokkoli-
nol dow Λ.
• Fawre 1: Ju ol λ 7→ f (w, λ ) ina jokkolini dow Λ wo-
nande kala w ∈ T .
• Fawre 2: Wonande kala cukkulal K nder Λ, ina woodi
ju ol gK ki otoongol tawa
| f (w, λ )| ≤ gK (w) wonande kala λ ∈ K e ¡esi-kala w ∈
T.
Dallinaande 3.12
So pawe garooje les ¡ee kuu naama, oon sahaa F ko jokkoli-
nol dow Λ.
• Fawre 1: Ju ol λ 7→ f (w, λ ) ina saltinoo dow Λ wo-
nande ¡esi-kala w ∈ T .
1 Fawre yonnde = (condition su sante, su cient condition)
179
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 8. KIAL LEBESGUE
• Fawre 2: Wonande kala cukkulal K nder Λ, ina woodi
ju ol gK ki otoongal tawa
∂ f (w,λ )
| ∂ λ | ≤ gK (w), wonande kala w ∈ T ngel f seertintoo
to mum e kala λ ∈ K .
Teskuya 3.2
Ina himmi siftorde wonde cukkulea nder R ko gane ¡e sifaa
[a, b].
a Cukkulal = (ensemble compact, compact set)
8.3.3 Boowe Lebesgue, Lp
Anndinoore 3.4
Yoo won 1 ⩽ p ⩽ +∞. Boowal L p (Ω) ko kuu al ju i e-
totoo¡i ganndinaa¡i dow Ω faade e C ¡e fayande mumen
p- ere ina hi oo.
E¡en nganndina boowal
L ∞ (Ω) = { f : Ω → C ki otoongal, ∃α ∈ R : λ (| f | > α ) = 0},
¡o λ woni etirgal Lebesgue.
180
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 8.3. KIAL LEBESGUE
Anndinoore 3.5
E¡en nganndina boowal L p = L p (Ω) hono no kuu al pelle
jemmondirala ju i nder L p (Ω) wonande jotondiral jem-
mondiralb "fotde ¡esi-kuu nal". etal L p ina anndiniree:
wonande kala f ∈ L p ,
ˆ 1p
∥ f ∥p = p
| f | dλ , so 1 ⩽ p < ∞,
∥ f ∥∞ = Les {α| λ (| f (w)| > α ) = 0} ,
¡o λ woni etirgal Lebesgue.
a Fedde jemmondiral = (classe d'équivalence, equivalence class)
b Jotondiral jemmondiral = (relation d'équivalence, equivalence re-
lation)
Dallinaande Riesz-Fisher:
Dallinaande 3.13
Boowe L p ko boowe Banach, w.¡.a ete ¡ee ko timmu¡e.
a w.¡. ko dottere "woni ¡um"
181
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 8. KIAL LEBESGUE
Anndinoore 3.6
Laa ¡e ¡i¡e p, r ≥ 1 ina mbi'ee ko jahde so tawii 1p + 1r = 1.
En nanndirat wonde 1 e ∞ ko jahde (e jaggude wonde ∞1 = 0).
ur ural Hölder2 :
Dallinaande 3.14
Yoo ngon laa ¡e ¡i¡e jahde p ∈ [1, ∞] e r. Yoo ngon ju i
¡i¡i f ∈ L p et g ∈ Lr . Oon sahaa f g ∈ L1 , etee
∥ f g∥1 ≤ ∥ f ∥ p ∥g∥r .
ur ural Minkowski3 :
Dallinaande 3.15
Yoo won p ≥ 1. Yoo ngon ju i ¡i¡i f e g nder L p . Ndeen
noon f + g ina jeyee kadi nder L p , etee
∥ f + g∥ p ≤ ∥ f ∥ p + ∥g∥ p .
2 Otto Hölder (1859-1937) ko hiisiweejo Almaañnaajo.
3 Hermann Minkowski (1864 - 1909) ko hiisiweejo- alliweejo Licciyaani-
naajo.
182
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 8.3. KIAL LEBESGUE
Teskuya 3.3
ur ural Cauchy-Schwartz ngal njiyno-¡en ngal ko hasiinde
heeriindea p = q = 2 nder ur ural Hölder.
a Hasiinde heeriinde = (cas particulier, special case)
8.3.4 etir¡e jokkoline pawtarol
Anndinoore 3.7
Yoo (T , B) won boowal etatoongol. etirgal µ ina innee
σ -kaa¡tungal dow (T , B) so ina woodi doggal (En )n∈N ge¡e
B tawa :
1. (En )n∈N ko jippitaral e maanaa jollugol;
2. ∀n ∈ N, µ (En ) < ∞;
3. T = n≥1 En .
S
Teskuya 3.4
Kala etirgal kaa¡tungal ko σ -kaa¡tungal.
183
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 8. KIAL LEBESGUE
Anndinoore 3.8
Yoo µ e ν ngon etir¡e dow (T , B). Ina wi'ee wonde µ
ko jokkolinal pawtarol wonande ν so tawii ina hisani kala
boreliwal Γ, ν (Γ) = 0 ⇒ µ (Γ) = 0. Oon sahaa, ina tonngee:
µ << ν .
Dallinaande Radon-Nikodym:
Dallinaande 3.16
Yoo µ et ν ngon etir¡e σ -kaa¡tu¡e tawa µ << ν , oon
sahaa ina
´ woodi ju ol etotoongol ustarol bajjol f tawa
µ (Γ) = Γ f dν wonande kala boreliwal Γ. Ngol-¡oon ju ol
f wi'ayee ko cukkola ngol µ dow ν , tonngee f = dµ
dν .
a Cukkol = (densité, density)
Teskuya 3.5
Nder pawe e jeñtule dallinaande Radon-Nikodym ndee, ina
he ee:
ˆ ˆ
gdµ = g f dν, wonande kala ju ol g etotoongol.
Γ Γ
184
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 8.3. KIAL LEBESGUE
8.3.5 Dallinaande Fubini
Njaajtineen ganndinooje:
Dallinaande 3.17
Anndinoore hinnde, hinnde Borel, ganndinooje to¡¡ii¡e e-
tirgal ¡ee fof ina njaajtinoo saanga nde T woni udditiingal
nder Rd , d ≥ 2 (hono Boowal Euclide ngal ittiria d ).
Oon sahaa, hinnde Borel B nde T wonata ko cowal karteesiwalb
kinle Borel Bk ¡e Tk .
etirgal Lebesgue dow ngal-¡oon boowal (T , B) anndiniree
etirgal bajjal kisnungal:
d d d
λd ( ∏ ]ak , bk [) = ∏ λ (]ak , bk [) = ∏ (bk − ak ).
k =1 k =1 k =1
a Ittiri = (dimension, dimension)
b Cowal karteesiwal = (produit cartésien, cartesian product)
Dallinaande 3.18
Yetten d = 2. Yoo f : T = T1 × T2 → R won ju ol eto-
toongol, oon sahaa f (·, w2 ) : T1 → R e f (w1 , ·) : T2 → R ko
etotoo¡i wonande kala w1 ∈ T1 e w2 ∈ T2 .
185
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo DAMAL 8. KIAL LEBESGUE
Dallinaande 3.19
Yoo µ1 e µ2 ngon etir¡e ¡e ñise kaa¡tu¡e dow (T1 , B1 )
e (T2 , B2 ), e ¡oftondirala . Ndeen noon ina woodi etirgal
bajjal µ dow (T = T1 × T2 , B = B1 × B2 ) tawa
µ (Γ1 × Γ2 ) = µ1 (Γ1 ) µ2 (Γ2 ).
a E ¡oftondiral = (respectivement, respectively): ina huutoree ngam
wiyde µ1 yahdata ko e (T1 , B1 ), µ2 yahda e (T2 , B2 ). So winndaama "
e ¡oftondiral", feññinaa ko "ko adii e konngol gadanol ¡oftondiri ko e
ko adii e konngol ¡immol; ko refti heen e gadanol ¡oftondira e ko refti
heen e ¡immol".
Dallinaande Fubini4 :
Dallinaande 3.20
Haa jooni keddo¡en e ittiri d = 2, kono endi waawnoo yaa-
jtineede, ndi woni haa¡tundi kala.
Wootere e ¡ee pawe dow ju ol f : T → R ina yona ngam
pote ¡ee-¡oo ngoong¡a:
ˆ ˆ ˆ
f (w, y)d ( µ1 ⊗ µ2 )(w, y) = f (w, y)dµ2 (y) dµ1 (w)
T T1 T2
4 Guido Fubini (1879 - 1943) ko hiisiweejo Italinaajo.
186
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 8.3. KIAL LEBESGUE
ˆ ˆ
= f (w, y)dµ1 (w) dµ2 (y)
T2 T1
Pawe ¡ee:
• Fawre 1: f : T → R ko ju ol etotoongol ustarol.
• Fawre 2: f : T → R ko ki otoongol wonande µ1 ⊗ µ2 .
• Fawre 3: f : T → R etotoongol tawa
ˆ ˆ
| f (w, y)|dµ2 (y) dµ1 (w) < ∞.
T1 T2
187
Hammadi Faalil SIH
Ñoggannde Silo 8.3. KIAL LEBESGUE
189
Ñoggannde Silo Hiisiwo
Un abrégé d'analyse mathématique en langue Pulaar-Fulfulde
A summary of mathematical analysis in Pulaar-Fula language
Nder ndee-¡oo deftere, wallifeejo oo Dans ce livre, l'auteur nous propose une
ina artana en e silo hiisiwo toowngo, présentation de l'analyse mathématique,
janngateengo e du¡e jaa i haa¡tirde. étudiée a l'université. Des concepts ns
Maandooje cee ¡e hiisiweeje kan e de cette discipline sont présentés dans la
wi¡o mumen ina tonnganaa janngoowo langue Pulaar. Il s'agit d'une opportunité
oo e ¡emngal Pulaar. Ko fartae pour l'apprenant d'avoir des connaissances
wonande oon janngoowo nde waawata avancées, ainsi qu'un certain niveau de
he de gannde toow¡e e ¡emngal mum, vocabulaire, dans sa propre langue. Les
he de kelmeendi njahdoori heen ndii. mathématiques constituent un puissant
Hiisiwal ko ganndal doolnungal, ngal domaine de connaissance, utilisé par di-
ganndiwe limtin¡e kuutortoo. Ko ngal verses sciences. C'est une méthode e cace
yitere yumtunde anndirnde faru nduu d'aborder l'univers et la nature. Ce livre
e sewlo ngoo. Ndee-¡oo deftere ko représente ainsi une démonstration que les
dallinol memtindiingol kebagol ¡em¡e langues africaines sont prêtes a devenir des
afrikiweejo wontude janngir¡e e bi¡tir¡e. supports d'enseignement et de recherche.
Dr. Hammadi Faalil Sih
Hammadi Faalil Sih ko hiisiweejo, jannginoowo-bi¡toowo
e du¡e jaa i haa¡tirde. Ko o muritaninaajo, jibinaa¡o
to wuro Beelinaa e e hitaande 1990. O golliima e du¡e
maw¡e winndereyankeeje. Caggal doktoral hiisiwal ke an-
gal to Université Cergy-Pontoise (France), o golliima to
University of Virginia (USA) ko adii nde omo tawtoya
Imperial College London (UK). To bae wi¡to, o gollata
ko e lowe silo potindire calte keerii¡e, yirwere di¯¯e,
degrewol denrentiwiwol e silo hasriwo. Ko ndee woni
deftere tata ere hiisiwal nde o winndi e ¡emngal Pulaar.
O yaltiniino "Binndan¡e Hiisankooje" (2016), e "Gannde
Hiisiwe" (2019).
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