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Le document décrit plusieurs expériences de laboratoire en physique, y compris la détermination de la longueur d'onde de la lumière laser, l'analyse des caractéristiques V-I d'une diode, et la mesure de l'angle d'acceptation d'un câble à fibre optique. Chaque expérience comprend des objectifs, des appareils, des formules, des procédures et des applications. Les résultats incluent des valeurs calculées pour des paramètres tels que la longueur d'onde, l'ouverture numérique, la résistance série, et le facteur de remplissage.
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Physics Lab Internal Exam ~ Experiments 1 to 7
1. Laser - Wavelength using Diffraction Grating
Aim:
To determine the wavelength of laser light using a diffraction grating.
Apparatus:
Laser source, difraction grating, screen, optical bench, scale,
Formulae:
+ A=sin(8)/ (nN)
© 8=tan(xn /D)
Diagram: Laser -> Grating -> Diffraction pattern on screen.
[=I
Tabular Column:
Wavelength Calculation Table (Diffraction/Interference)
[Link] D(cm) | Xi(LHS) [Xe (RS) | MeanX, | VIX; +0") | sin@=X, | A=sind/
JNOq?+ | aN
D4)
Procedure:
1. Mount the laser on the optical bench
2. Place the diffraction grating in front of the laser.
3. Position the screen at a known distance (D). 4, Switch on the laser and observe the diffraction spots.
5. Align central maximum with scale zero.
6. Measure distances (xn) of first, second, third order maxima,
7. Calculate angle 6 = tan™"(xn/D}.
8. Used
in(@)/{nN) to compute wavelength.
9. Repeat for LHS and RHS and take average.
10. Tabulate and conclude with final A.
Precautions:
+ Donot view laser directly with eyes.
Perform in a dark room for clear visit
RESULT:
Wavelength of laser light is
Application:
1. Used in CD/DVD reading and writing.
2. Used in barcode scanners.
3. Used in fiber optic communications.
4. Used in scientific measurements like interferometry. Observation
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alee 3. P-N Junction Diode ~ V-I Characteristics
Aim: To study the V- characteristics of a diode and determine forward and reverse resistance.
Apparatus: Diode kit, DC power supply, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Connecting wires.
Formulae:
+ Forward resistance = V/I in forward bias
+ Reverse resistance = V/lin reverse bias
Diegram: Circuit for forward and reverse bias of diode.
Circuit Diagrams
FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BLAS
pes —__—_ - eT |
‘Tabular Column: Voltage (V) | Current (mA / 1A)
Diode V-1 Characteristics Table
[Link] Forward Bias | Forward Bias | [Link] Reverse Bias | Reverse Bias
Voltage (V) | Current (mA) Voltage (V) | Current (wA/
pA)
Procedure:
1. Set up the circuit for forward
using the diode kit. Gradually increase voltage and note current values.
Continue until diode starts conducting,
Record readings up to safe limits
Disconnect and rewire for reverse bias configuration.
Increase voltage and note small reverse current.
‘Avoid exceeding breakdown voltage.
Plot V-I curves for both forward and reverse bias.
Determine Forward and Reverse Resistance from slope,
10. Conclude based on conduction behavior.
eeuaueun
Precautions:
+ Do not exceed voltage ratings of the diode.
'* Check connections before powering the circuit.
Expected Graph: VI curve showing forward conduction and reverse blocking
won
Result:
1) The V-I Characteristics of given junction diode have been verified.
2) Forward Resistance----—- ; Reverse bias Resistance.
Application:
1. Used in rectifiers to convert AC to DC.
2. Used in signal demodulation circuits.
3. Used in over-voltage protection circuits.
4, Used in LED and photodiode applications. f & (obrulohres
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ferutk 4, Solar Cell - VI Characteristics
Aim: To draw the V-I characteristics of a solar cell and calculate the fill factor (FF) and series.
resistance (Rs).
Apparatus: Solar Cell, Voltmeter, Microammeter, Potentiometer, Connecting wires.
Formulae:
Ime
Fill Factor
+ Series Resistance Rs = % [AV1/AI1 + AV2/A12]
Diagram: Equivalent circuit and V-1 graph of solar cell
Tabular Column: Voltage (V) | Current (yA)
V4 Characteristics Table (Multiple Sets)
[Link] [Voltage [Current [[Link] | Voltage |Current [[Link] | Voltage | Current
™) (a) ™) (a) () (a)
Procedure: Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram,
Place the light source at a fixed distance (e.g., 15 em) from the solar cell
Adjust the potentiometer to get zero voltage and maximum current ~ this is Isc.
Gradually increase the resistance using the potentiometer.
For each resistance, record the voltage (V) and current (I.
Continue till you reach maximum voltage (Voc) and minimum current.
Disconnect the load to measure open circuit voltage Voc,
Repeat the experiment by changing the distance of the light source (20 cm, 25 cm).
|. Plot the V-I curve and find Vm and Im for each curve.
10. Use the graph to calculate Fill Factor and Series Resistance.
Precautions:
‘+ Light source must be perpendicular to the cell
+ Avoid parallax error while taking readings.
Expected Graph: V-I characteristics showing Voc and Isc.
Feoay——> Vaan he AVLAVE.A Aba
‘Onevetns & Coates
RESULT:
|. Fill factor (F)
2. Series Resistance (Rs
Application:
1 Used in solar calculators and solar-powered toys.
2. Used in solar panels to power homes and streetlights.
3. Used in space satellites for electricity generation.
4. Used in remote areas for water pumping and lighting. :
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Aim:
To determine the electrical conductivity and energy band gap (Eg) of a semiconductor using the Four
Probe Method,
Apparatus:
Four probe setup, semiconductor sample, constant current power supply, digital voltmeter,
temperature controller with heater and thermometer.
FORMULA:
‘The energy band gap of the semiconductor Eg is given by
ng. 22078 kx log 10p
1/> (in kelvin)
(inev)
Where Eg — Band gap of the material
‘T — Temperature in kelvin
K — Boltzmann constant, K — 8.6x10° eV/K.
Diagram:
Four-point probe placed on a semiconductor wafer connected to power supply and voltmeter.
Tabular Column:
| Temp (°C) | Temp (K) | 1/T x 10? (K™) | Voltage (mV) | p (Q-cm) | logio p |
Resistivity vs Temperature Table [Link] Temperature
rc)
‘Temperature
(K)
Wtx 10>
Voltage
(mv)
p (Q-em)
Togo p
Procedure:
1. Connect the four probes to the semiconductor sample as per circuit diagram,
2. Set a constant current using the power supply.
3, Heat the sample gradually and note the voltage drop across the inner probes at various
temperatures.
4. Use thermometer to measure temperature of the sample and convert to Kelvin,
5. For each temperature, calculate resistivity p\rhop.
6. Compute logso p and 1/T for all readings.
7. Plota graph of loge p vs 3/T.
8. Determine slope (m) of the graph.
Calculate band gap using
_ 23026%kxtop 109
59 = “Timketvtny
9. Record result and conclude.
Precautions:
* Handle the semiconductor crystal carefully
‘+ Let the sample cool down between tri
Is.
© Use gloves while handling heated equipment.
(inev)
itis brittle, Expected Graph:
Astraight line when logro(l(y axis) is plotted against 1/T (in K(x axis)
Result:
‘The energy band gap of the semiconductor is ..
Electrical conductivity at room temperature i
Application:
1. Determines if material is suitable for electronic devices.
2. Helps classify semiconductors (e.g., Silicon, Germanium).
3. Used in research of temperature effects on conductivity
4, Used in designing thermistors and sensors. | oenpy) phurut tm °C Srerpnlyres oH |
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0.04% (dy! a) 6. Thermistor ~ Temperature vs Resistance
Aim: To study resistance vs temperature and evaluate constants A and B.
Apparatus: Thermistor, thermometer, oil bath, heater, Wheatstone bridge, voltmeter.
Formulae:
*R=A* eA(B/T)
+ log(R) = log(A) + 8/T
EVALUATION OF CONSTANTS ‘A’ AND 'B"
‘The resistance of the thermistor is given by R — Ae®/™—-(1)
‘Taking logarithms on both sides we get loge R = loge A+B ——- (2)
Logi0R- Logi0A + Blogi0e
Diagram: Wheatstone bridge with thermistor setup.
ct ce
Tabular Column:
Resistivity vs Temperature Table
[Link] Temperature | Temperature | 1/Tx10° | Voltage |p (em) | logiop
ro) (s) (mv) Procedure:
Set up the Wheatstone bridge circuit with the thermistor.
Place thermistor in beaker with oil.
Raise temperature slowly and measure R at intervals of 5°
Cool down and record R at same intervals.
Convert temperature to Kelvin and calculate 2/T, log R.
Plot R vs T and log R vs 1/T.
Determine constants A and B from graph.
Ensure stable heating and cooling.
Avoid overheating the thermistor.
10. Record and tabulate values propery,
eexov eee
Precautions:
+ Keep heating arrangement away from circuit,
‘+ Record readings while temperature decreases slowly.
Expected Graph: Exponential decrease of R with increase in
inear log R vs 1/T graph,
Draw a graph between resistance and absolute temperature. It should be as ste
in figure 2),
lag R)
The slope of the line gives B.
To It—> calculate the constant A take the logarithm to
the base 10 of the formula ().
Pa Fig) RESULTS:
The Temperature characteristics of given thermistor is drawn and
1, The value of Constant A —-
a
2. The value of Constant
Application:
[Link] in temperature sensors in air conditioners.
2. Used in battery chargers for thermal protection.
3, Used in fire alarms and oven controls.
4, Used in measuring temperature in scientific labs. / Obsowalien °
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Zt — 7. Hall Effect - RH, Carrier Density, and Mobility
Aim:
To determine Hall Coefficient (RH), carrier density (n}, and mobility (1) of a semiconductor.
Apparatus:
IC regulated power supply, electromagnets, Hall sensor, Gauss meter, digital voltmeter.
Formulae:
VHxXZ
+ Hall Coefficient (RH) =
IxB
Where VH/I = Slope of 2KG graph
Z_ = Thickness of crystal
B= Magnetic field (2KG in this case)
* Carrier density (n) = 1/ (RH x q)
Where q = 1.6% 10-19
Carrier mobility (y) = RH * x
Where x = 0.447
Diagram:
Hall probe placed between magnetic poles.
Tabular Column:
Hall Effect Table
[Link] Hall Current (I, mA) | Hall Voltage (V, mV)
Procedure:
1. Connect IC supply to electromagnet coils.
2. Calibrate Gauss meter and set magnetic field B.
3._ Insert Hall probe between poles and measure VH. 4. Apply constant current I through the sample.
5. Record Hall voltage for varying current steps.
6. Plot VH vs | and find slope = VH/L
7. Use formula to calculate RH, and p.
8. Repeat for different B values for accuracy.
9. Ensure accurate placement of Hall probe.
10. Tabulate results and conclude.
Precautions:
+ Keep Hall probe perpendicular to magnetic field.
* Donot exceed 10 mA through crystal.
Expected Graph:
VH vs |— straight line
RESULT:
1. Hall Coefficient (RH)
2. Carrier Density (n)
3. Carrier Mobility ( 1
Applications:
1. Used in magnetic field sensors (Hell sensors).
2. Used in brushless DC motors.
3. Used in measuring carrier type and density.
4, Used in automotive and mobile phones for position sensing Colaulahp nts
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