2025 3 20

ii
iv
 5

1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

29

2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

61

3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

1
2

83

4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4.2 ⃗
P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

4.3 ⃗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
D

4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

99

5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

111

6.1 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

137

7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

7.2 ⃗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
M

7.3 ⃗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
H

7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

153

8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
 3

8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

171

9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

9.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

9.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

9.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

203
4
 19
20

50
5 10

5
6
1.

2.

• Ampere 1775-1836

• Boltzmann (1844-1906

• Biot 1774-1862

• Poisson (1781-1840)

• Laplace 1749-1827

• Gauss (1777-1855)

• Green 1793-1841

• Maxwell (1831-1879)

• Kelvin 1824-1907

• Lorentz (1853-1928

7
8

1.1

1.1.1

(scalar)

(vector)

"vector" "carrier"
−−→
A B ⃗a = AB A B
A B :

⃗a = xx̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ

:
1.1 9

⃗a = rr̂ + ϕϕ̂ + z ẑ ⃗a = rr̂ + θθ̂ + ϕϕ̂

1.1.2

q
1. ⃗
r |⃗
r| = r = rx2 + ry2 + rz2

⃗
r
2. : r̂ = |⃗
r|

3.

4.

5. ⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a||⃗b| cos θ = ax bx + ay by + az bz ⃗a ⃗b

6. ⃗c = ⃗a × ⃗b ⃗c ⃗a ⃗b
⃗c ⃗a ⃗b
|⃗c| = |⃗a||⃗b| sin θ
(î, ĵ, k̂ = x̂, ŷ, ẑ/r̂, ϕ̂, ẑ/r̂, θ̂, ϕ̂)

î × ĵ = k̂, ĵ × k̂ = î, k̂ × î = ĵ (1.1)

⃗c = ⃗a × ⃗b = (ai î + aj ĵ + ak k̂) × (bi î + bj ĵ + bk k̂)
= (aj bk − ak bj )î + (ak bi − ai bk )ĵ + (ai bj − aj bi )k̂ (1.2)

7. / ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c
10

⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = ⃗b · (⃗c × ⃗a) = ⃗c · (⃗a × ⃗b) (1.3)

8. ⃗a × (⃗b × ⃗c) ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c
⃗b ⃗c 1

⃗a × (⃗b × ⃗c) = ⃗b(⃗a · ⃗c) − ⃗c(⃗a · ⃗b) (1.4)

⃗a × (⃗b × ⃗c) + ⃗b × (⃗c × ⃗a) + ⃗c × (⃗a × ⃗b) = 0 (1.5)

1.1.3

∇·D
⃗ = ρ0 (1.6)
⃗
⃗ = − ∂B
∇×E (1.7)
∂t
∇·B
⃗ =0 (1.8)
⃗
⃗ = J⃗ + ∂ D
∇×H (1.9)
∂t
1
BAC-CAB ⃗b ⃗
c 0
1.2 11

‹ ˚
⃗ · dS
D ⃗= ρ0 dV (1.10)
S V
˛ ¨ ⃗
⃗ · d⃗l = − ∂B
E · dS
⃗ (1.11)
∂t
‹ L S

⃗ · dS
B ⃗ =0 (1.12)
S
˛ ¨ ¨ ⃗
⃗ · d⃗l = ∂D
H J⃗ · dS
⃗+ · dS
⃗ (1.13)
L S S ∂t

1.2

1.2.1

´b
a f (x)dx f (x) [a, b]
a b line integral
C path integral

´
1. C f (⃗
r )ds f (⃗
r) ds = |d⃗
r| ⃗
r
, line element
´
2. C f⃗(⃗
r ) · d⃗
r f⃗(⃗
r) d⃗
r ⃗
r
vector line element

⃗=r
r ⃗ (t) = x(t)x̂ + y(t)ŷ + z(t)ẑ (1.14)

⃗ : [t0 , t1 ] → C
r ⃗ (t0 )
r ⃗ (t1 )
r C z=0
12

x = cos(θ), y = sin(θ), z = 0; θ : [0, 2π]

t
d⃗
r

d⃗r (t)
d⃗
r= dt = r ⃗ ′ (t)dt (1.15)
dt
ds = |d⃗
r | = |⃗r ′ (t)|dt (1.16)

t
ˆ ˆ t1
f (⃗
r )ds = f (⃗ r ′ (t)|dt
r (t))|⃗ (1.17)
C t0
ˆ ˆ t1
f⃗(⃗
r ) · d⃗
r= f⃗(⃗ ⃗ ′ (t)dt
r (t)) · r (1.18)
C t0

F⃗ (⃗
r) C F⃗ (⃗
r)
ˆ
W = r ) · d⃗
F⃗ (⃗ r (1.19)
C

1.1

C (t : 0 → 1)

x(t) = cos(t), y(t) = sin(t), z(t) = t

F⃗

Fx = y, Fy = x, Fz = z

F⃗
1.2 13

F⃗
ˆ ˆ 1 ˆ 1
W = r ) · d⃗
F⃗ (⃗ r= ⃗ ′ (t)dt =
r (t)) · r
F⃗ (⃗ (y, x, z) · (cos′ (t), sin′ (t), t′ )dt
C 0 0
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
= (sin(t), cos(t), t) · (− sin(t), cos(t), 1)dt = (− sin2 (t) + cos2 (t) + t)dt
0 0
ˆ 1
sin(2t) t2 1 sin(2) 1
= (cos(2t) + t)dt = ( + )|0 = + [N · m]
0 2 2 2 2

closed line integral

´ ¸
C C

2 1.3

1.2.2

d⃗
r
⃗
dS
⃗
dS dS ⃗
dS

˜
1. S f dS f S
˜
2. S f⃗ · dS
⃗ f⃗ S

⃗ (t)
r
⃗ (s, t)
r

⃗=r
r ⃗ (s, t) = x(s, t)x̂ + y(s, t)ŷ + z(s, t)ẑ (1.20)

⃗ : [s0 , s1 ] × [t0 , t1 ] → S
r 1

2
A B
A B ( 1 2)
A 1 B B 2
A
14

x = sin θ cos ϕ, y = sin θ sin ϕ, z = cos θ; θ ∈ [0, π], ϕ ∈ [0, 2π]

⃗
dS

⃗ = d⃗ ∂⃗
r (s, t) ⃗ ∂⃗
r (s, t)
dS r1 × d⃗
r2 , d⃗
r1 = dS, d⃗
r2 = dt (1.21)
∂s ∂t
⃗ = ∂⃗
⇒ dS
r (s, t) ∂⃗
×
r (s, t)
dsdt (1.22)
∂s ∂t
∂⃗
r (s, t) ∂⃗r (s, t)
dS = × dsdt (1.23)
∂s ∂t

s t :
¨ ¨
∂⃗r (s, t) ∂⃗ r (s, t)
f dS = f (⃗
r (s, t)) × dsdt (1.24)
S S ∂s ∂t
¨ ¨  
⃗ ⃗ ∂⃗
r (s, t) ∂⃗ r (s, t)
f · dS =
⃗ r (s, t)) ·
f (⃗ × dsdt (1.25)
S S ∂s ∂t

1.2

z r (r, ϕ, z) ⃗
dS
1.2 15

⃗
dS ⃗
r

r1 × d⃗
dS = d⃗ r2 = rdϕdz (1.26)

⃗ = r̂rdϕdz
dS (1.27)

⃗ (ϕ, z) = (r cos ϕ, r sin ϕ, z)

r (1.28)

⃗
r ϕ z

∂⃗
r
= (−r sin ϕ, r cos ϕ, 0) (1.29)
∂ϕ
∂⃗
r
= (0, 0, 1) (1.30)
∂z

⃗= ∂⃗
r ∂⃗r
dS × dϕdz (1.31)
∂ϕ ∂z
= (−r sin ϕ, r cos ϕ, 0) × (0, 0, 1)dϕdz (1.32)
= (r cos ϕ, r sin ϕ, 0)dϕdz (1.33)
= r̂rdϕdz (1.34)

⃗ = r cos ϕx̂+
r
r sin ϕŷ + z ẑ ⃗ = rr̂ + ϕϕ̂ + z ẑ
r
∂⃗
r
∂ϕ r̂ ϕ ϕ r̂
x̂, ŷ, ẑ ϕ z

1.3

r (r, θ, ϕ) ⃗
dS
16

⃗
dS ⃗
r

r1 × d⃗
dS = d⃗ r2 = (rdθ)(r sin θdϕ) = r2 sin θdθdϕ (1.35)

⃗ = r̂r2 sin θdθdϕ

dS (1.36)

⃗ (θ, ϕ) = (r sin θ cos ϕ, r sin θ sin ϕ, r cos θ)

r (1.37)

⃗
r θ ϕ

∂⃗
r
= (r cos θ cos ϕ, r cos θ sin ϕ, −r sin θ) (1.38)
∂θ
∂⃗
r
= (−r sin θ sin ϕ, r sin θ cos ϕ, 0) (1.39)
∂ϕ

⃗= ∂⃗
r ∂⃗ r
dS × dθdϕ
∂θ ∂ϕ
= (r cos θ cos ϕ, r cos θ sin ϕ, −r sin θ) × (−r sin θ sin ϕ, r sin θ cos ϕ, 0)dθdϕ
= (r2 sin2 θ cos ϕ, r2 sin2 θ sin ϕ, r2 sin θ cos θ cos2 ϕ + r2 sin θ cos θ sin2 ϕ)dθdϕ
= r2 sin θ(sin θ cos ϕ, sin θ sin ϕ, cos θ)dθdϕ
= r̂r2 sin θdθdϕ

dQ
I= (1.40)
dt
1.2 17

ρ ⃗
v
S1 S2 S1 S2

¨
dQ ρvdtS1
I= = = ρvS1 = v · dS
ρ⃗ ⃗
dt dt S1
¨
dQ ρvdtS2 cos θ
I= = = ρvS2 cos θ = v · dS
ρ⃗ ⃗
dt dt S2

flux

ρ⃗
v
J⃗ ¨
I= J⃗ · dS
⃗ (1.41)
S

F⃗ F⃗
⃗
dS 3

Φ ¨
Φ= F⃗ · dS
⃗ (1.42)
S

˜ ‚
S S 1.3

1.2.3

ϕ(⃗
r)
˚
ϕ(⃗
r )dV (1.43)
V

dV ⃗
r (î, ĵ, k̂) ⃗
r
d⃗
ri , d⃗
rj , d⃗
rk

3
18

ri · (d⃗
dV = d⃗ rj × d⃗
rk )
 
∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r
=( di) · ( dj) × ( dk)
∂i ∂j ∂k
 
∂⃗
r ∂⃗r ∂⃗r
= · × didjdk (1.44)
∂i ∂j ∂k

1.

⃗ = (x, y, z)
r
∂⃗
r ∂⃗r ∂⃗
r
= (1, 0, 0), = (0, 1, 0), = (0, 0, 1)
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂⃗r ∂⃗r ∂⃗ r
dV = · × dxdydz
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
= (1, 0, 0) · (0, 1, 0) × (0, 0, 1) dxdydz

= (1, 0, 0) · (1, 0, 0)dxdydz

= dxdydz (1.45)

⃗
r
dx, dy, dz dxdydz

2.

⃗ =(r cos ϕ, r sin ϕ, z)

r
∂⃗
r
=(cos ϕ, sin ϕ, 0)
∂r
∂⃗
r
=(−r sin ϕ, r cos ϕ, 0)
∂ϕ
∂⃗
r
=(0, 0, 1)
∂z

 
∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r ∂⃗r
dV = · × drdϕdz
∂r ∂ϕ ∂z
 
=(cos ϕ, sin ϕ, 0) · (−r sin ϕ, r cos ϕ, 0) × (0, 0, 1) drdϕdz

=(cos ϕ, sin ϕ, 0) · (r cos ϕ, r sin ϕ, 0)drdϕdz

=rdrdϕdz (1.46)

dV = rdrdϕdz
1.3 19

3.

⃗ =(r sin θ cos ϕ, r sin θ sin ϕ, r cos θ)

r
∂⃗
r
=(sin θ cos ϕ, sin θ sin ϕ, cos θ)
∂r
∂⃗
r
=(r cos θ cos ϕ, r cos θ sin ϕ, −r sin θ)
∂θ
∂⃗
r
=(−r sin θ sin ϕ, r sin θ cos ϕ, 0)
∂ϕ

 
∂⃗
r ∂⃗
r ∂⃗ r
dV = · × drdθdϕ
∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
=(sin θ cos ϕ, sin θ sin ϕ, cos θ)·
 
(r cos θ cos ϕ, r cos θ sin ϕ, −r sin θ) × (−r sin θ sin ϕ, r sin θ cos ϕ, 0) drdϕdz

=r2 sin θdrdθdϕ (1.47)

dV = r2 sin θdrdθdϕ

1.3

f⃗(⃗
r , t)

df⃗ dfx dfy dfz

= x̂ + ŷ + ẑ (1.48)
dt dt dt dt
x, y, z
x̂, ŷ, ẑ

1.3.1

U (⃗
r)
U (⃗
r) gradient

∂U ∂U ∂U
∇U = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ (1.49)
∂x ∂y ∂z
20

∇ (Nabla )

∂ ∂ ∂
∇=( , , ) (1.50)
∂x ∂y ∂z

U ⃗ = (x, y, z)
r d⃗
r =
(dx, dy, dz) U (⃗ r ) − U (r)
r + d⃗

∂U ∂U ∂U
dU = dx + dy + dz (1.51)
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂U ∂U ∂U
dU = ( , , ) · (dx, dy, dz)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= ∇U · d⃗
r (1.52)

U (x, y, z) =constant ⃗
r
d⃗
r d⃗
r U d⃗
r 0
dU = U (⃗ r ) − U (r) = 0
r + d⃗

∇U · d⃗
r=0 (1.53)

∇U ∇U
d⃗
r

dU = ∇U · d⃗
r = |∇U ||d⃗
r| (1.54)

|∇U | = dU
|d⃗
r| ∇U U

1.2

F⃗

1.1
F⃗ F⃗ = ∇Φ F⃗

A B F⃗ F⃗ = ∇Φ F⃗ A B
C ˆ ˆ ˆ
F⃗ · d⃗
r= ∇Φ · d⃗
r= dΦ = Φ(B) − Φ(A) (1.55)
C C C
1.3 21

Φ(B) − Φ(A) A B Φ A B
F⃗

F⃗
F⃗ F⃗ = ∇Φ F⃗
Φ(⃗
r)
ˆ
Φ(⃗
r) = F⃗ · d⃗
r
C

C ⃗
r F⃗ Φ(⃗
r)

r ) = F⃗ · d⃗
dΦ(⃗ r

r ) = ∇Φ · d⃗
dΦ(⃗ r

F⃗ · d⃗
r = ∇Φ · d⃗
r

d⃗
r F⃗ = ∇Φ

1.3.2

F⃗
x, y, z Fx , Fy , Fz x, y, z
9

∂Fx ∂Fx ∂Fx

, ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Fy ∂Fy ∂Fy
, ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Fz ∂Fz ∂Fz
, ,
∂x ∂y ∂z

9
3×3 3
F⃗ divergence
∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz
divF⃗ = + + (1.56)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∇ F⃗
22

∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz ∂ ∂ ∂

divF⃗ = + + = ( , , ) · (Fx , Fy , Fz ) = ∇ · F⃗ (1.57)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

F⃗

F⃗ ⃗
r ⃗
r
S dV

‚
F⃗ · dS
⃗
divF⃗ = lim S
(1.58)
dV →0 dV

divF⃗ > 0 F⃗ divF⃗ < 0 F⃗

divF⃗ = 0

1.57 1.58 F⃗

⃗ = (x, y, x)
r
dx, dy, dz
F⃗
⃗1
S ⃗2
S F⃗
¨
F⃗ · dS ⃗ 1 + F⃗ (x − dx , y, z) · S
⃗ = F⃗ (x + dx , y, z) · S ⃗2
⃗ ⃗
S1 +S2 2 2
dx dx
= Fx (x + , y, z)dydz − Fx (x − , y, z)dydz
2 2
 
dx dx
= Fx (x + , y, z) − Fx (x − , y, z) dydz
2 2
 
∂Fx
= dx dydz
∂x
∂Fx
= dV (1.59)
∂x
∂Fy
F⃗ ∂y dV
∂Fz
∂z dV F⃗
S
‹
⃗ = ∂Fx dV + ∂Fy dV + ∂Fz dV
F⃗ · dS
S ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz
= + + dV
∂x ∂y ∂z
= (∇ · F⃗ )dV (1.60)
1.3 23

1.58 F⃗
‚
F⃗ · dS⃗
divF⃗ = lim S
dV →0 dV
(∇ · F⃗ )dV
= lim
dV →0 dV
= ∇ · F⃗ (1.61)

1.57 F⃗

V
S
‹ ˚ 
lim F⃗ · dS
⃗− ∇ · F⃗ dV =0 (1.62)
V →0 S V

1.2
F⃗ S ∇ · F⃗ S
V ‹ ˚
F⃗ · dS
⃗= ∇ · F⃗ dV (1.63)
S V

S V
S′
VA VB S′ S
SA SB F⃗ S

‹ ¨ ¨
F⃗ · dS
⃗= F⃗ · dS
⃗+ F⃗ · dS
⃗ (1.64)
S ⃗A
S ⃗B
S

S′ ⃗′
(S A
⃗′ )
SB
¨ ¨
F⃗ · dS
⃗+ F⃗ · dS
⃗ =0 (1.65)
⃗′
S ⃗′
S
A B
24

1.64
‹ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ 
F⃗ · dS
⃗= F⃗ · dS
⃗+ F⃗ · dS
⃗+ F⃗ · dS
⃗+ F⃗ · dS
⃗
S ⃗A
S ⃗B
S ⃗′
S ⃗′
S
¨ ¨ ¨ ¨
A B
 
= F⃗ · dS
⃗+ F⃗ · dS
⃗ + F⃗ · dS
⃗+ F⃗ · dS
⃗
⃗A
S ⃗′
S ⃗B
S ⃗′
S
‹ ‹A B

= F⃗ · dS
⃗+ F⃗ · dS
⃗ (1.66)
S ⃗′
⃗ A +S ⃗′
⃗ B +S
S
A B

F⃗ V S F⃗
VA VB ′
SA + SA ′
SB + SB
V Vi (i = 1, 2, 3, ..., N )
Vi 1.62
‹ X
N ‹
F⃗ · dS
⃗= F⃗ · dS
⃗
S i=1 Si

X
N ˚
= ∇ · F⃗ dV
i=1 Vi
˚
= ∇ · F⃗ dV (1.67)
V

1.63

∇ · F⃗ 0 0
0
∇ · F⃗ F⃗

1.3.3

F⃗ 9

∂Fx ∂Fx ∂Fx

, ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Fy ∂Fy ∂Fy
, ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Fz ∂Fz ∂Fz
, ,
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz

∂x , ∂y , ∂z

∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz

9 ∂x , ∂y , ∂z
6 F⃗ ∂Fx
∂y
F⃗ y x
1.3 25

x−y F⃗
∂Fx ∂Fy
∂y > 0, ∂x <0 A B, C D
Fx Fy
F⃗ F⃗
F⃗
A D F⃗ A D

∂Fy
A= ∂x − ∂F
∂y
x
A
0 F⃗ A>0
F⃗ A
z +z −z
⃗
A  
⃗= ∂Fy ∂Fx
A − ẑ (1.68)
∂x ∂y

F⃗
⃗
A ⃗
A F⃗

1.2
A D F⃗ F⃗
F⃗ A D
∂Fy
A= ∂x − ∂Fx
∂y
⃗
A F⃗
(x, y)
dx, dy F⃗

˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛
F⃗ · d⃗
r= F⃗ · d⃗
r+ F⃗ · d⃗
r+ F⃗ · d⃗
r+ F⃗ · d⃗
r
ABCD AB BC CD DA
   
dx dy
= − Fy (x − , y)dy + Fx (x, y − )dx +
2 2
   
dx dy
Fy (x + , y)dy + − Fx (x, y + )dx
2 2
   
dx dx dy dy
= Fy (x + , y) − Fy (x − , y) dy − Fx (x, y + ) − Fx (x, y − ) dx
2 2 2 2
   
∂Fy ∂Fx
= dx dy − dy dx
∂x ∂y
   
∂Fy ∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fx
= − dxdy = − dS (1.69)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
26

⃗
A
˛ ¨
F⃗ · d⃗
r= ⃗ · dS
A ⃗ (S → 0) (1.70)
C S

¸
⃗ · ẑ = ∂Fy − ∂Fx = F⃗ · d⃗
r
A=A C
(dS → 0) (1.71)
∂x ∂y dS
F⃗ ⃗
A F⃗

F⃗

F⃗ F⃗
F⃗ Curl
     
∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx ∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx
curlF⃗ = − x̂ + − ŷ + − ẑ = ∇ × F⃗ (1.72)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

C F⃗ C C
F⃗
¸
F⃗ · d⃗
r
⃗ S · curlF⃗ = lim
n C
(1.73)
dS→0 dS

1.70
˛ ¨
F⃗ · d⃗
r= (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS
⃗ (S → 0) (1.74)
C S

S→0
(Stokes)

1.3
F⃗ C ∇ × F⃗ C
S ˛ ¨
F⃗ · d⃗
r= (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS
⃗ (1.75)
C S

F⃗ F⃗
C
1.70 1.75
1.3 27

1.1: F⃗ Φ

∇ · (∇ × F⃗ ) = 0
∇ × ∇Φ = 0
∇ × (∇ × F⃗ ) = ∇(∇ · F⃗ ) − ∇2 F⃗

1.2:
˚ ‹ ‹
∇ × F⃗ dV = − F⃗ × dS
⃗ =− F⃗ × n
⃗ dS
V ⃗
S ⃗
S

1.3:

‹ ˚
⃗ = ρ
∇·E ⃗ · dS
E ⃗= ρ
dV
ε0 S V ε0
⃗ ˛ ¨ ⃗
⃗ = − ∂B
∇×E ⃗ · d⃗l = −
E
∂B
· dS
⃗
∂t ∂t
‹ L S
∇·B =0
⃗
⃗ · dS
⃗ =0
B
⃗
∂E S
∇×B
⃗ = µ0 J⃗ + µ0 ε0 ˛ ¨ ¨ ⃗
∂t ⃗ · d⃗l = µ0 ∂E
B J⃗ · dS
⃗ + µ0 ε 0 · dS
⃗
L S S ∂t

1.4: ∇

∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇ = r̂ + ϕ̂ + ẑ
∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

∇ r, ϕ, z r̂, ϕ̂, ẑ x̂, ŷ, ẑ

∂ ∂r ∂ ∂ϕ ∂ ∂z ∂
∂x ∂x ∂r + ∂x ∂ϕ + ∂x ∂z

1.5: ∇ Φ
dΦ
Φ |d⃗
r|
∇

1.6: 1.4 ∇ Φ
28

F⃗ = Fr r̂ + Fϕ ϕ̂ + Fz ẑ

∂Φ ∂Φ ∂Φ
∇Φ = r̂ + ϕ̂ + ẑ
∂r r∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂(rFr ) 1 ∂Fϕ ∂Fz
∇ · F⃗ = + +
r ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z
     
1 ∂Fz ∂Fϕ ∂Fr ∂Fz 1 ∂(rFϕ ) ∂Fr
∇ × F⃗ = r̂ − + ϕ̂ − + ẑ −
r ∂ϕ ∂z ∂z ∂r r ∂r ∂ϕ

∂ r̂
∂ϕ = ϕ̂

1.7: 1.4 ∇

∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇ = r̂ + θ̂ + ϕ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

1.8: 1.5 ∇

∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇ = r̂ + θ̂ + ϕ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

1.9: 1.7 ∇ Φ
⃗
F = Fr r̂ + Fθ θ̂ + Fϕ ϕ̂

∂Φ 1 ∂Φ 1 ∂Φ
∇Φ = r̂ + θ̂ + ϕ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
2
1 ∂(r Fr ) 1 ∂(Fθ sin θ) 1 ∂Fϕ
∇ · F⃗ = 2 + +
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
     
1 ∂(Fϕ sin θ) ∂Fθ 1 ∂Fr ∂(rFϕ ) 1 ∂(rFθ ) ∂Fr
∇ × F⃗ = r̂ − + ϕ̂ − + ẑ −
r sin θ ∂θ ∂ϕ r ∂ϕ ∂r r ∂r ∂θ

1
1.10: U U (⃗
r) = r

∇U ∇ × (∇U ) (r ̸= 0)

ϕ̂
1.11: F⃗ F⃗ (⃗
r) = r

∇ · F⃗ ∇ × F⃗ (r ̸= 0)

1.12: F⃗ F⃗ (x, y, z) = y x̂ − xŷ

F⃗ x−y ∇ · F⃗ ∇ × (F⃗ )

1.13:
∇ · (ϕ⃗a) = ϕ∇ · ⃗a + (∇ϕ) · ⃗a (1.76)

∇ × (ϕ⃗a) = (∇ϕ) × ⃗a + ϕ(∇ × ⃗a) (1.77)

-

2.1

29
30

6 Thales of Miletu
elektron
electric

1.

2.

3.

18
· Benjamin Franklin, 1706-1790
2.1 31

charge

C
1,2 e = 1.6 × 10−19 C
1909 · Robert Millikan 1868-1953
1923

2.1 law of charge conservation

V S
˚ ‹
∂ρ
dV + J⃗ · dS
⃗ =0 (2.1)
V ∂t S

∂ρ
+ ∇ · J⃗ = 0 (2.2)
∂t
ρ J⃗

1
20 · Murray Gell-Mann
1929-2019 1969
±1/3e ±2/3e

MilliQan Phys. Rev. D 102, 032002 (2020)

32

2.2

18 torsion balance

F⃗

θ M = kθ
k
F = M/l = kθ/l
F

18
10−8 N

1784 · Charles-Augustin de
Coulomb 1736-1806
2.2 33

2.2 Coulomb’s law

q1 q2 q1 q2
F⃗12 = k 2 r̂12 = k r2 − r
(⃗ ⃗1 ) = −F⃗21 (2.3)
r12 |⃗
r2 − r⃗1 |3

2.3 N C m k
:
1
k= = 8.99 × 109 N · m2 /C2
4πε0
ε0 ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N · m2

2.1

Fe Fg

kq1 q2 8.99 × 109 × (1.6 × 10−19 )2

Fe = =
r2 r2
Gm1 m2 6.7 × 10−11 × (9.1 × 10−31 ) × (1.7 × 10−27 )
Fg = =
r2 r2
kq1 q2
Fe /Fg =
Gm1 m2
8.99 × 109 × (1.6 × 10−19 )2
=
6.7 × 10−11 × (9.1 × 10−31 ) × (1.7 × 10−27 )
≈1039
34

1039

40
1017

2.2
m ze
v≪ c
m0 ≪ m −e

∆E

1. m ≫ m0

2.

3.

4. v≪c

ze 2
f⃗ = k 2 r̂ (2.4)
r

f⃗ = dP
⃗ /ddt dt ⃗ = f⃗dt
dP
´ +∞
⃗ =
P −∞ f⃗dt
⃗
P x Px
ˆ +∞ ˆ +∞ ˆ +∞
dt 1
Px = fx dt = fx dx = fx dx (2.5)
−∞ −∞ dx v −∞

´ +∞
fx (x) = −fx (−x) Px = 1
v −∞ fx dx = 0
2.2 35

P = Py
ˆ +∞ ˆ +∞
ze2
P =Py = fy dt = sin(φ)dtk
−∞ −∞ r2
ˆ +∞ ˆ
ze2 b dx kze2 b +∞ dx
= k 2 = √ (2.6)
−∞ r r v v 2
−∞ ( x + b )
2 3

x b tan θ
ˆ +∞ ˆ +π/2 ˆ +π/2
dx b/ cos2 θdθ 1 2
√ = √ = 2 cos θdθ =
−∞ ( x + b2 )3
2
−π/2
2 2
( b tan θ + b )2 3 b −π/2 b2

2.6

2kze2
P = (2.7)
bv

P2
E0 = 2m0

P2 2k 2 z 2 e4
∆E = E0 = = (2.8)
2m0 m0 b2 v 2

2.8
z v

1. z

z≪1
z z

2. v

π/K
36

2.1
q1 , q2 , ..., N q0 F⃗
qi q0 F⃗i

X
N X
N
kq0 qi
F⃗ = F⃗i = r0 − r
(⃗ ⃗i ) (2.9)
i=1 i=1
|⃗
r0 − r⃗ i |3

˚ ˚
kρ1 (⃗
r1 )ρ2 (⃗
r2 )
F⃗12 = r2 − r
(⃗ ⃗1 )dV1 dV2 = −F⃗21 (2.10)
V1 V2 |⃗
r2 − r⃗1 |3

2.3
+q −q
electric dipole ⃗l
electric dipole moment
⃗ = q⃗l
p Q F⃗

:
Q +q −q Q

F⃗ = F⃗+ + F⃗− (2.11)

F// = F+// + F−// = −2F+ cos θ

kqQ l/2 kqQl
= −2 2 =− 2 (2.12)
r+ r+ (r + l2 /4)3/2
2.3 37

⃗l

kqQ⃗l kQ⃗ p
F⃗ = − 3/2
=− 2 (2.13)
2 2
(r + l /4) (r + l /4)3/2
2

r≫l
kQ⃗p
F⃗ = − 3 (2.14)
r

2.3

action at a distance

electric field

· Michael Faraday 1791-1867

· James Maxwell 1831-1879

⃗
E

q0 F⃗
38

⃗
⃗ = F
E (2.15)
q0

⃗ = q
E r̂ (2.16)
4πε0 r2

r2 ⃗
r

X
N
1 X N
qi
⃗ r) =
E(⃗ ⃗ i (⃗
E r) = r−r
(⃗ ⃗i ) (2.17)
i=1
4πε0 i=1 |⃗
r−r ⃗ i |3

2.4
P (⃗
r) r≫l ⃗ r)
E(⃗

:
P (⃗
r)

⃗ r) = E
E(⃗ ⃗ + (⃗ ⃗ − (⃗
r) + E r)
 
q r ⃗+ r ⃗−
= 3 − r3
4πε0 r+
(2.18)
−

⃗l ⃗l
r ⃗− ,
⃗+ = r ⃗− = r
r ⃗+ (2.19)
2 2
 ⃗l −3/2  −3/2  
−3
⃗l l2 l2 ⃗ · ⃗l −3/2
r
r+ r − ) · (⃗
= (⃗ r− ) ⃗ · ⃗l
= r2 + − r = r−3 1 + 2 − 2 (2.20)
2 2 4 4r l
r≫l l/r
 −3/2  −3/2  
−3 l2 ⃗ · ⃗l
r ⃗ · ⃗l
r ⃗ · ⃗l
3r
r+ = r−3 1 + 2
− 2 ≈ r−3 1 − ≈ r−3 1 + (2.21)
4r l l2 2 r2

 
−3 −3 ⃗ · ⃗l
3r
r− ≈r 1− (2.22)
2 r2
2.3 39

2.18
    
⃗ r) = q 3r⃗ · ⃗l 3r ⃗ · ⃗l
E(⃗ r⃗+ 1 + −r
⃗− 1 −
4πε0 r3 2 r2 2 r2
 
q ⃗ · ⃗l
3r
= (⃗r+ − r
⃗− ) + (⃗ ⃗− )
r+ + r (2.23)
4πε0 r3 2 r2

r ⃗− = −⃗l, r
⃗+ − r ⃗+ + r
⃗− = 2⃗
r
 
⃗ r) = q ⃗ · ⃗l
⃗l + 3( r
E(⃗ − )⃗
r
4πε0 r3 r2
−⃗
p + 3(r̂ · p ⃗ )r̂
= 3
(2.24)
4πε0 r

⃗l ⃗
r

• P 2.24

⃗ r) = −⃗p
E(⃗ (2.25)
4πε0 r3

2.3

• P 2.24

⃗ r) = 2⃗
p
E(⃗ (2.26)
4πε0 r3

2.5
P (⃗
r) r≫l ⃗ r)
E(⃗

⃗ r) = E
E(⃗ ⃗ 1 (⃗ ⃗ 2 (⃗
r) + E r)
 
1 −q⃗l q⃗l
= + (2.27)
4πε0 (r + 2l )3 (r − 2l )3
40

l/r
 
⃗ r) = q⃗l −1 1
E(⃗ +
4πε0 r3 (1 + 2rl )3 (1 − 2rl )3
 
q⃗l 3l 3l
= − (1 − ) + (1 + )
4πε0 r3 2r 2r
⃗
q l 3l
=
4πε0 r3 r
3ql2 l̂
= (2.28)
4πε0 r4

r−4

2.6
R q
P (z)

dq dq P dE
dE⊥ P dE∥
ˆ
E= dE∥ (2.29)

dE∥ = dE cos θ
1 dq z
= (2.30)
4πε0 r2 r
q
√
λe = 2πR r= R2 + z 2

1 λe dl z
dE∥ = 2 2
√ (2.31)
4πε0 R + z R + z2
2

ˆ ˆ 2πR
1 λe z
E= dE∥ = 2 2
√ dl
0 4πε0 R + z R + z2
2

2πRλe z
=
4πε0 (R2 + z 2 )3/2
qz
= (2.32)
4πε0 (R + z 2 )3/2
2
2.3 41

z≫R

q
E≈ (2.33)
4πε0 z 2

2.7
R σe
P (z)

r
dr P

zdq
dE =
4πε0 (r2 + z 2 )3/2
zσe 2πrdr
=
4πε0 (r2 + z 2 )3/2
zσe rdr
= (2.34)
2ε0 (r2 + z 2 )3/2

P
ˆ R
zσe rdr
E=
2ε0 0 (r2 + z 2 )3/2
R
zσe −1
= √
2ε0 r2 + z 2 0
 
σe z
= 1− √ (2.35)
2ε0 z 2 + R2

1. z≪R
σe
E≈ (2.36)
2ε0
z E ∝ z0

2. z≫R  
σe 1 R πR2 σe q
E≈ 1 − [1 − ( )2 ] = 2
= (2.37)
2ε0 2 z 4πε0 z 4πε0 z 2
42

2.8
l λe
P (r)

:
λdx P
0

λe dx r
dE = 2dE1 cos θ = 2 (2.38)
4πε0 r′2 r′
√
r′ = r 2 + x2
ˆ ˆ l/2
2λe r dx
E= dE = (2.39)
4πε0 0 (x2 + r2 )3/2

rdθ
x = r tan θ dx = cos2 θ

ˆ arctan(l/2r)
2λe r r cos3 θ
E= dθ
4πε0 π/2 cos2 θ r3
ˆ arctan(l/2r)
2λe r cos θ
= dθ
4πε0 π/2 r2
arctan(l/2r)
2λe r 1
= sin θ
4πε0 r2 π/2
2λe r 1 l
= 2
√
4πε0 r 4r + l2
2

2λe l
= √ (2.40)
4πε0 r 4r + l2
2

1. r≪l
2λe
E≈ (2.41)
4πε0 r
E ∝ r−1

2. r≫l
2λe l λe l q
E≈ = 2
= (2.42)
4πε0 r 2r 4πε0 r 4πε0 r2

E r

1. E ∝ r0

2. E ∝ r−1
2.3 43

3. E ∝ r−2

4. E ∝ r−3

5. E ∝ r−4

E ∝ r−2

2.9
R ρe
z P (z)

:
OP 2.35 ρdx σe
√
R2 − x2 R z−x z x dx P

 
ρe dx z−x
dE = 1− p 2
2ε0 R − x2 + (z − x)2
 
ρe dx z−x
= 1− √
2ε0 R2 + z 2 − 2zx
 
ρe dx z−x
= 1− √ q 2 2 (2.43)
2ε0 2z R 2z+z
−x

z 2 +R2 z 2 −R2
a= 2z , b=z−a= 2z

 
ρe dx a−x+b
dE = 1− √ √
2ε0 2z a − x
√ 
ρe dx 1 √ b
= √ 2z − a − x − √ (2.44)
2ε0 2z a−x

ˆ ˆ R √ 
ρe 1 √ b
E= dE = √ 2z − a − x − √ dx
2ε0 2z −R a−x
 R
ρe 1 √ 2 √
= √ 2zx + (a − x) + 2b a − x
3/2
2ε0 2z 3 −R
√ 
ρe 1 2 √ √
= √ 2z · 2R − [(a + R)3/2 − (a − R)3/2 ] − 2b[ a + R − a − R] (2.45)
2ε0 2z 3
44

(z + R)2 (z − R)2
a+R= , a+R= (2.46)
2z 2z
(z + R)3 − (z − R)3 2(R3 + 3z 2 R)
(a + R)3/2 − (a − R)3/2 = √ = √ (2.47)
2z 2z 2z 2z
√ √ 2R
a+R− a−R= √ (2.48)
2z

 
ρe 1 √ 2 2(R3 + 3z 2 R) 2R
E= √ 2z · 2R − · √ − 2b √
2ε0 2z 3 2z 2z 2z
√ 
ρe 1 2 (R + 3z R) z − R2 2R
3 2 2
= √ 2z · 2R − · √ − √
2ε0 2z 3 z 2z z 2z
ρe 1 12z R − 2(R + 3z R) − 6(z − R )R
2 3 2 2 2
= √ √
2ε0 2z 3z 2z
ρe 4R3
=
2ε0 6z 2
ρe · 34 πR3
=
4πε0 z 2
q
= (2.49)
4πε0 z 2

q q

1
2 3
2.4 45

2.4

⃗
E

∇·E
⃗ ∇·
(E ⃗ 2) = ∇ · E
⃗1 + E ⃗1 + ∇ · E
⃗2

X
N X
N
1 X N
⃗−r
r ⃗i
∇ · E(⃗
⃗ r) = ∇ · ⃗ i (⃗
E r) = ∇·E
⃗ i (⃗
r) = qi ∇ · (2.50)
i=1 i=1
4πε0 i=1 |⃗
r−r
⃗i |3

˚ ˚
1 ⃗−r
r ⃗0 3 1 ⃗−r
r ⃗0 3
∇ · E(⃗
⃗ r) = ∇· r0 )
ρ(⃗ ⃗0 =
d r r0 )∇ ·
ρ(⃗ ⃗0
d r (2.51)
4πε0 V |⃗
r−r
⃗0 |3 4πε0 V |⃗
r−r
⃗ 0 |3

⃗−⃗
r ri
|⃗
r −⃗
ri |3
⃗i
r

⃗−r
r ⃗i ⃗
r
∇· =∇· 3 (2.52)
|⃗
r−r
⃗i |3 r

1.9

1 ∂(r2 Fr ) 1 ∂(Fθ sin θ) 1 ∂Fϕ

∇ · F⃗ = + + (2.53)
r2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

⃗
r 1 ∂(r2 r12 ) 1
∇· 3
= 2
+0+0= 2 ×0=0 r ̸= 0)
(⃗ (2.54)
r r ∂r r

∇· ⃗
r
r3
=0 ⃗ ̸= 0
r ⃗=0
r
‚
⃗
r ⃗
r
⃗ r3 · dS
⃗
∇ · 3 = lim S
(2.55)
r dV →0 dV
46

r ⃗
S dV
‚
⃗
r ⃗
r
⃗ r3 · dS
⃗
∇ · 3 = lim S
r dV →0 dV
r 2
3 4πr
= lim r 4 3
3 πr
r→0
3
= lim
r→0 r 3

=∞ (2.56)



0,
⃗
r ⃗ ̸= 0,
r
∇· = (2.57)
r3 
∞, ⃗ = 0.
r

1.2
˚ ‹
⃗
r ⃗ ⃗
r
∇· dV = dS (2.58)
V r3 ⃗
S r3

⃗
S
˚
⃗
r r
∇· 3
dV = 3 4πr2 = 4π (2.59)
V r r

δ ∇· ⃗
r
r3
δ


0, ⃗ ̸= 0,
r
δ(⃗
r) = (2.60)

∞, ⃗ = 0.
r

˚
r )dV = 1
δ(⃗ (2.61)
all−space

δ
˚
f (⃗ r−r
r )δ(⃗ ⃗0 )d3 r
⃗ = f (⃗
r0 ) (2.62)
all−space

∇· ⃗
r
r3
⃗
r
∇· = 4πδ(⃗
r) (2.63)
r3

2.50

1 X N
⃗−r
r ⃗i 1 X N XN
qi
∇ · E(⃗
⃗ r) = qi ∇ · = qi 4πδ(⃗
r − ⃗
r i ) = r−r
δ(⃗ ⃗i ) (2.64)
4πε0 i=1 |⃗
r−r
⃗i | 3 4πε0 i=1 ε
i=1 0
2.4 47

‹ ˚
⃗ · dS
E ⃗= ∇ · E(⃗
⃗ r )dV
⃗
S V
˚ X N
qi
= r−r
δ(⃗ ⃗i )dV
ε
V i=1 0

XN ˚
qi
= r−r
δ(⃗ ⃗i )dV
i=1
ε 0 V
1 X
= qi
ε0 r⃗ in V
i
1
= Qin (2.65)
ε0

Qin ⃗
S

˚ ˚
1 ⃗−r
r ⃗0 3 1 ρ(⃗
r)
∇ · E(⃗
⃗ r) = r0 )∇ ·
ρ(⃗ ⃗0 =
d r ρ(⃗ r−r
r0 )4πδ(⃗ ⃗0 )d3 r
⃗0 = (2.66)
4πε0 V |⃗
r−r
⃗0 |3 4πε0 V ε0

‹ ˚
⃗ · dS
E ⃗= ∇ · E(⃗
⃗ r )dV
⃗
S
˚ V
ρ(⃗
r)
= dV
V ε0
1
= Qin (2.67)
ε0

2.1
⃗
E ⃗
S
1
ε0 ‹
ΦE⃗ = E ⃗ = Qin
⃗ · dS (2.68)
⃗
S ε0

⃗ r ) = ρ(⃗
∇ · E(⃗
r)
(2.69)
ε0

⃗
r
0 r3
r2
˜ ⃗ ⃗
r
S r3 dS = dΩ
48

0.

2.10
R q ⃗ r)
E(⃗

:
⃗
S O r ⃗
S
S⃗

‹
⃗ · dS
E ⃗ = Qin
⃗
S ε0
Q in
⇒ 4πr2 E =
ε0
Qin
⇒E=
4πε0 r2

1. r≥R Qin = q
q
E= (2.70)
4πε0 r2

2. r<R

r3
Qin = q
R3
3
q Rr 3 qr
E= = (2.71)
4πε0 r2 4πε0 R3

2.11

⃗ r)
E(⃗ R q

r ⃗
S ⃗
S
⃗
S ‹
⃗ = Qin
⃗ · dS
E
⃗
S ε0
Qin
⇒ 4πr2 E =
ε0
Qin
⇒E=
4πε0 r2
2.4 49

1. r<R Qin = 0 E=0

2. r>R Qin = q
q
E= (2.72)
4πε0 r2

3. r → R+

q σe
E→ 2
= (2.73)
4πε0 R ε0

1.
σe
E= 2ε0 2.7

P
P
P

2.

P
P P
± 2ε
σe
0
σe
2ε0 0

2.12
R σe
⃗ r)
E(⃗

:
P r h
⃗
S

⃗ =S
S ⃗ up + S⃗ down + S
⃗ side (2.74)
S⃗ up , S
⃗ down ⃗ side
S
50

⃗ side
S
‹ ‹ ‹
⃗ · dS
E ⃗= ⃗ · dS
E ⃗+ ⃗ = Qin
⃗ · dS
E
⃗
S ⃗ up +S
S ⃗ down ⃗ side
S ε0
Qin
⇒ 0 + 2πhE =
ε0
Qin
⇒E=
2πε0 rh

1. r<R Qin = 0 E=0

2. r>R Qin = 2πRhσe

2πRhσe σe R
E= = (2.75)
2πε0 rh ε0 r

3. r → R+

σe
E→ (2.76)
ε0

0
σe
ε0

2.13
σe ⃗
E(z)

P S S
2z

‹ ‹ ‹ ‹
⃗ · dS
E ⃗= ⃗ · dS
E ⃗+ ⃗ · dS
E ⃗+ ⃗ = Qin
⃗ · dS
E
⃗ left
S ⃗ right
S ⃗ side
S ε0
σe S
⇒ ES + ES + 0 =
ε0
σe
⇒E= (2.77)
2ε0



 σe ẑ,
2ε0 z > 0,
⃗
E(z) = (2.78)

− σe ẑ,
2ε0 z < 0.

z=0
2.4 51

2.14
R ρe
r

R ρe R
−ρe
2.10

⃗ = q⃗
r ⃗
ρe r
E 3
= (2.79)
4πε0 R 3ε0

⃗1
⃗ + = ρe r
E (2.80)
3ε0
⃗ − = −ρe r
E
⃗2
(2.81)
3ε0

⃗ =E ⃗1 −ρe r
⃗ − = ρe r
⃗+ + E ⃗2 r1 − r
ρe (⃗ ⃗2 ) ρe ⃗a
E + = = (2.82)
3ε0 3ε0 3ε0 3ε0

⃗ ′
⃗a = OO ρe a
3ε0

⃗ = ρe ⃗a
E (2.83)
3ε0

θ
d = a cos θ cos θ
cos θ
52

2.5

⃗
E C
ˆ
⃗ · d⃗
E r (2.84)
C

q C

ˆ ˆ
A= F⃗ · d⃗
r= ⃗ · d⃗
qE r
ˆ C C
A
⇒ ⃗ · d⃗
E r= (2.85)
C q

C C circulation

˛
A
≡ ⃗ · d⃗
E r= (2.86)
C q

1.75
˛ ¨
⃗ · d⃗
E r= (∇ × E)
⃗ · dS
⃗ (2.87)
C ⃗
S
2.5 53

 ˚  ˚
1 ⃗−r
r ⃗0 3 1 ⃗−r
r ⃗0 3
∇ × E(⃗
⃗ r) = ∇ × ρ(⃗
r0 ) ⃗0 =
d r r0 )∇ ×
ρ(⃗ ⃗0 (2.88)
d r
4πε0 V |⃗
r−r
⃗ 0 |3 4πε0 V |⃗
r−r
⃗ 0 |3

⃗−⃗
r r0
|⃗
r −⃗
r 0 |3

⃗−r
r ⃗0
∇× (2.89)
|⃗
r−r
⃗ 0 |3

⃗0
r

⃗−r
r ⃗0 ⃗
r
∇× =∇× 3 (2.90)
|⃗
r − r0 |
⃗ 3 r

1.9
     
1 ∂(Fϕ sin θ) ∂Fθ 1 ∂Fr ∂(rFϕ ) 1 ∂(rFθ ) ∂Fr
∇ × F⃗ = r̂ − + ϕ̂ − + ẑ − (2.91)
r sin θ ∂θ ∂ϕ r ∂ϕ ∂r r ∂r ∂θ

⃗
r 1 1 1
∇× 3
= r̂ (0 − 0) + ϕ̂ (0 − 0) + ẑ (0 − 0) = 0 (2.92)
r r sin θ r r
2.88
˚ ˚
1 ⃗−r
r ⃗0 3 1
∇ × E(⃗
⃗ r) = r0 )∇ ×
ρ(⃗ ⃗0 =
d r r0 ) · 0 · d3 r
ρ(⃗ ⃗0 = 0 (2.93)
4πε0 V |⃗
r−r
⃗0 |3 4πε0 V

2.87
˛ ¨
⃗ · d⃗
E r= (∇ × E)
⃗ · dS
⃗ =0 (2.94)
C ⃗
S

2.2

˛
= ⃗ · d⃗
E r=0 (2.95)
C

∇×E
⃗ =0 (2.96)
54

q
q0 P Q
q q0
ˆ Q
AP Q = ⃗ · d⃗l
q0 E
P
ˆ Q
qq0
= r̂ · d⃗l (2.97)
P 4πε0 r2

r̂ · d⃗l = dr

ˆ Q  
qq0 qq0 1 1
AP Q = 2
dr = − (2.98)
P 4πε0 r 4πε0 rP rQ

2.6

⃗ r)
E(⃗
Φ(⃗
r) ⃗ r ) = ∇Φ(⃗
E(⃗ r) Φ(⃗
r)
ˆ ⃗
r
Φ(⃗
r) = ⃗ · d⃗
E r (2.99)
∞

⃗ r)
E(⃗ ⃗
r ⃗ r)
E(⃗

dΦ(⃗ ⃗ · d⃗
r) = E r (2.100)

r ) = ∇Φ · d⃗
dΦ(⃗ r (2.101)

⃗ · d⃗
E r = ∇Φ · d⃗
r (2.102)

d⃗
r ⃗ r ) = ∇Φ(⃗
E(⃗ r)

Φ(⃗
r)
2.6 55

P Q q
ˆ Q ˆ Q ˆ Q
AP Q = ⃗ · d⃗
qE r=q ∇Φ(⃗
r ) · d⃗
r=q dΦ = qΦ(Q) − qΦ(P ) (2.103)
P P P

AP Q = W (P ) − W (Q) (2.104)

2.103 2.104
ˆ ⃗
r ˆ ∞
r ) = −qΦ(r) = −q
W (⃗ ⃗ · d⃗
E r=q ⃗ · d⃗
E r (2.105)
∞ ⃗
r

U (⃗
r)

ˆ ∞
r) ≡
U (⃗ ⃗ · d⃗
E r (2.106)
⃗
r

⃗ r ) = −∇U (⃗
E(⃗ r) (2.107)

V q

W (⃗
r ) = qU (⃗
r) (2.108)

2.103 ˆ Q  
AP Q = ⃗ · d⃗
qE r = q U (P ) − U (Q) (2.109)
P

2.106 q

q
U (⃗
r) = (2.110)
4πε0 r

X
N X
N
qi
U (⃗
r) = Ui (⃗
r) = (2.111)
1 1
4πε0 |⃗
r − vri |
56

˚ ˚
r ′ )dV ′
ρ(⃗
U (⃗
r) = dUr⃗′ (⃗
r) = (2.112)
V′ V′ 4πε0 |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

∇U
U

2.15
2.6 R
q P (z)

dq P

dq
dU (z) = (2.113)
4πε0 r

P
ˆ ˆ q
dq q q
U (z) = dU = = = √ (2.114)
0 4πε0 r 4πε0 r 4πε0 R2 + z 2

P z :

∂U qz
Ez = − = (2.115)
∂z 4πε0 (R + z 2 )3/2
2

2.6

2.16

:
P
P

U (⃗
r ) = U+ (⃗
r ) + U− (⃗
r)
 
q 1 1
= − (2.116)
4πε0 r+ r−
2.6 57

r+ , r− l/r ≪ 1
 
q l l
(r2 + ( )2 − rl cos θ)− 2 − (r2 + ( )2 + rl cos θ)− 2
1 1
U (⃗
r) =
4πε0 2 2
 
q l l l l
(1 + ( )2 − cos θ)− 2 − (1 + ( )2 + cos θ)− 2
1 1
=
4πε0 r 2r r 2r r
 
q l l
(1 − cos θ)− 2 − (1 + cos θ)− 2
1 1
≈
4πε0 r r r
 
q l l
≈ (1 + cos θ) − (1 − cos θ)
4πε0 r 2r 2r
ql cos θ
=
4πε0 r2
⃗·r
p ⃗
= (2.117)
4πε0 r2

⃗ = q⃗l
p

∇×E
⃗ =0 (2.118)

⃗ = −∇U
E (2.119)

⃗ = ρ
∇·E (2.120)
ε0

ρ
∇ · ∇U = ∇2 U = − (2.121)
ε0
∇2 ∆

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = ∆ = + + (2.122)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

U (∞) = 0 U
˚
1 ρ(⃗
r0 )
U (⃗
r) = dV0 (2.123)
4πε0 V0 |⃗
r−r ⃗0 |

2.119
˚
⃗ = −∇U = 1 ρ(⃗ r−r
r0 )(⃗ ⃗0 )
E dV0 (2.124)
4πε0 V0 |⃗
r−r ⃗0 |3
58

2.1: 2.2
N Z
dE
dx bmin bmax

2.2:

1. z

2. R = 10µm 1011 z

2.3: P (x) x≫l

2.4: ±σ

2.5: λ

2.6: R 2R q
2.6 59

2.7: +Q y
d −q Q>q
1. P (x, y, z)

2.

2.8: R ρe

2.9: x l λe x
E x

2.10: l λe
P (r)
60
61
62

3.1

1/2
4 n l
ml ms
n 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
n 2n2 2n2 l
n l = 0, 1, ..., n − 1 s, p, d, f...
(2l + 1)
29 29

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

1s2 n = 1, l = 0
3d
4s
29

1.

2. 3d 4s
4s

1cm3 N =
1023

N
29N 29N
N
3p
3.1 63

4s
3s 4s
4s
4s
1.6 × 106 m/s 4s
3d

3s 3p N sp3

1.12eV

Eg = 1.12eV
T -

1 E−EF Eg
p= E−EF ≈ e− kT ≈ e− 2kT
e kT +1
EF kT ≈ 0.026eV
Eg
p = e− 2kT ≈ e− 2×0.026eV = 4.4 × 10−10
1.12eV
(3.1)

1023 1cm3

3.2 Eg Eg = 5.5eV
64

Eg
p = e− 2kT ≈ e− 2×0.026eV = 1.2 × 10−46
5.5eV
(3.2)

1023 1

1cm ns

3.2

3.2.1

ns
electrostatic equilibrium

1.
3.2 65

C l
˛
0= ⃗ ⃗l = E∥ l − E∥ l
Ed (3.3)
C

E∥ =0
E∥ =0

2.

3. ρe

ρe = ε0 ∇ · E
⃗ (3.4)

ρe = 0

3.2.2

‹
⃗ = Qin
⃗ · dS
E
⃗ ε0
S ¨
⇒E S + E S + ⃗ = σe S
⃗ · dS
E (3.5)
ε0
E =0
˜
⃗ · dS
E ⃗ =0
σe S
E S= (3.6)
ε0
66

⃗ = σe n
E ⃗ (3.7)
ε0

1.

2.

3.7 d
σe 3.7

σe
E= (3.8)
ε0

d 2σe

2σe σe
E= = (3.9)
2ε0 ε0

3.2.3
3.2 67

r1 r2
σ1 σ2 σ1 σ2

1 1 2 1
2 1 1 1
1
1 Q1
U1 = (3.10)
4πε0 r1
2
1 Q2
U2 = (3.11)
4πε0 r2
U1 = U2
Q1 Q2
= (3.12)
r1 r2

4πr12 σ1 4πr22 σ2
= (3.13)
r1 r2

σ1 r2
= (3.14)
σ2 r1

A, B, C, D

A, B

C, D
68

3.1

σ0

1.

2.

:
1.
σ1 σ2

σ1 + σ2 = 0 (3.15)

0 σ0 , σ 1 , σ 2

σ0 σ1 σ2
0 = E0 + E1 + E2 = + − (3.16)
2ε0 2ε0 2ε0

σ0 σ0
σ1 = − , σ2 = (3.17)
2 2
2.

σ1 σ2
3.2 69

σ0 σ1 σ2
0= + + (3.18)
2ε0 2ε0 2ε0

3.16 3.16 3.18

σ1 = −σ0 , σ2 = 0 (3.19)

3.2

⃗
E

⃗
E
−E
⃗
2.14
cos θ

σe (⃗
r ) = σ0 cos θ (3.20)

z ⃗
E z

dq σdS
dEz = − 2
cos θ = − cos θ (3.21)
4πε0 r 4πε0 r2

σ = σ0 cos θ, dS = r2 sin θdθdϕ (3.22)

70

σdS σ0
dEz = − 2
cos θ = − cos2 θ sin θdθdϕ (3.23)
4πε0 r 4πε0

ˆ 2π ˆ π
σ0
Ez = −
cos2 θ sin θdθdϕ
4πε0
0
ˆ π0
σ0
= 2π − cos2 θ sin θdθ
4πε0
ˆ π
0
σ0
= cos2 θd cos θ (3.24)
2ε0 0

x = cos θ ˆ −1
σ0 σ0
Ez = x2 dx = − (3.25)
2ε0 1 3ε0
Ez = −E

σ0 = 3ε0 E (3.26)

σe (⃗
r ) = 3ε0 E cos θ (3.27)

3.3

Qin σin
⃗
E

:
S

‹
Qin = ε0 ⃗ · dS
E ⃗ =0 (3.28)
S

A B
´
A B UA − UB = ⃗ · d⃗l > 0
E

dS0 dS0 dS0

3.2 71

S :
‹
σin dS0 = dq0 = ε0 ⃗ · dS
E ⃗ =0 (3.29)
S

dS0 σin

Farady cage

3.4
Q
Qin

:
S

‹
Qin + Q = ε0 ⃗ · dS
E ⃗ =0 (3.30)
S

Qin = −Q

Q Q
Q
Q
Q

Q
72

3.3

3.2

ρe
∇2 U = − (3.31)
ε0

U (∞) = 0
˚
1 r0 )
ρ(⃗
U (⃗
r) = dV0 (3.32)
4πε0 V0 |⃗
r−r ⃗0 |

1. A ρe (A)

2. B ρe (B)

ρe (⃗
r) U1 (⃗
r)
U2 (⃗
r)
ρe ρe
∇2 U1 = − , ∇ 2 U2 = − (3.33)
ε0 ε0
U1 (⃗
r) U2 (⃗
r)
U (⃗ r ) − U2 (⃗
r ) = U1 (⃗ r)
3.3 73

U (⃗
r)
∇2 U = 0 (3.34)

U (⃗
r)
U1 (⃗
r) U2 (⃗
r)
U1 (⃗
r) U2 (⃗
r)
U (⃗
r)

U (⃗
r) U (⃗
r)

U (⃗
r)

1. A B

2.
σe /ε0

1.
A
B A B

2.

A B A
B A B

1 1
1
74

U (⃗ r ) − U2 (⃗
r ) = U1 (⃗ r) U (⃗
r)
U (⃗
r)
U (⃗
r)
U1 (⃗
r) U2 (⃗
r) U1 (⃗
r) U2 (⃗
r)

1.

2.

U1 (⃗
r) U2 (⃗
r)

3.1

1.
∂U
2. ∂n
σe
Q

3. 1 2

1.
2
/

2.
3.4 75

3.4

3.5
q x=a x=0

1. x > 0

2.

1. x>0
q
x=0

x = −a −q x=0
−q q ⃗
E
 
⃗ r) = 1 r − ⃗a) q(⃗
q(⃗ r + ⃗a)
E(⃗ − (3.35)
4πε0 |⃗
r − ⃗a|3 |⃗
r + ⃗a|3

⃗a = (a, 0, 0) x=0 U =0
x>0
x>0 x=0

3.35 x>0
76

2. 3.8 ⃗
r
 
1 −2q a −qa
σe (⃗
r ) = ε0 E = ε0 √ = (3.36)
x=0 4πε0 r2 + a2 r2 + a2 2π(r2 + a2 )3/2

ˆ ˆ ∞ ∞
−qa 1
Q= σe dS = 2 2 3/2
2πrdr = −qa √ = −q (3.37)
0 2π(r + a ) r + a2
2
0

1.

2.

1V 1V
x = −a −q
3.4 77

3.6

3.5

−qa
σe (⃗
r) = (3.38)
2π(r2+ a2 )3/2
−q q q

2.7
78

3.7
R a
Q
1.

2.

3.

:
1.

q Q
b Q q P
 
1 Q q
U= + (3.39)
4πε0 ra rb

ra , rb P Q, q U =0

Q q
+ =0 (3.40)
ra rb

P x

Q q
+ =0 (3.41)
a−R R−b
Q q
+ =0 (3.42)
a+R R+b

R2 R
b= , q=− Q (3.43)
a a
b, q U =0 3.40

Q R Q
p − p =0
(x − a)2 + y 2 + z 2 a (x − b)2 + y 2 + z 2
q q
⇒ a (x − b)2 + y 2 + z 2 = R (x − a)2 + y 2 + z 2
   
⇒ a (x − b) + y + z
2 2 2 2
= R (x − a) + y + z
2 2 2 2

⇒ (a2 − R2 )(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − R2 (a2 − R2 ) = 0

⇒ x2 + y 2 + z 2 = R 2

3.43 Q U =0
3.4 79

P
 
⃗ = Q ⃗a
r R r⃗b
E − (3.44)
4πε0 |⃗
ra |3 a |⃗
rb |3

⃗a , r
r ⃗b Q, q P

2.

∂U ∂U
r ) = −ε0
σe (⃗ = −ε0 (3.45)
∂n r=R ∂r r=R

U
 
1 Q q
U (⃗
r) = +
4πε0 ra rb
 
1 Q R Q
= √ − √ (3.46)
4πε0 r2 + a2 − 2ar cos θ a r2 + b2 − 2br cos θ

∂U
r ) = −ε0
σe (⃗
∂r r=R
 
Q R − a cos θ R R − b cos θ
=− − 2 +
4π (R + a2 − 2aR cos θ)3/2 a (R2 + b2 − 2bR cos θ)3/2
 
Q R − a cos θ R R − (R2 /a) cos θ
=− − 2 +
4π (R + a2 − 2aR cos θ)3/2 a (R2 + (R2 /a)2 − 2(R2 /a)R cos θ)3/2
 
Q R − a cos θ R R − (R2 /a) cos θ
=− − 2 +
4π (R + a2 − 2aR cos θ)3/2 a (R2 /a2 )3/2 (R2 + a2 − 2aR cos θ)3/2
Q(a2 − R2 )
=− (3.47)
4πR(R2 + a2 − 2aR cos θ)3/2

ˆ
qe = σe dS
ˆ π
Q(a2 − R2 )
= − 2πR2 sin θdθ
0 4πR(R2 + a2 − 2aR cos θ)3/2
π
Q(a2 − R2 ) 1
= √
2a R2 + a2 − 2aR cos θ 0
R
=− Q (3.48)
a

Q qe
0 = UO = + (3.49)
4πε0 a 4πε0 R
80

R
qe = − Q (3.50)
a

3.
1 R2 /a − Ra Q
R
aQ Q
Q
− Ra Q 3.47
R
aQ

⃗ = (E
E ⃗− + E
⃗ Q) + E
⃗+
 
Q ⃗a
r R r⃗b RQ⃗ r
= − + (3.51)
4πε0 |⃗
ra |3 a |⃗
rb |3 r |3
4πε0 a|⃗

σe (⃗
r ) = σe− (⃗
r ) + σe+ (⃗
r)
Q(a2 − R2 ) Q
=− + (3.52)
4πR(R + a − 2aR cos θ)
2 2 3/2 4πRa

3.1: A B
1)

2) A

3) B

4) B A
3.4 81

3.2: R a

3.3:

3.4: q q
a, b q

3.5: q q
82
 4.1

3.1

10−23 1

83
84

r ≈ 5.29 × 10−11 m

e 1.6 × 10−19
E=k = 8.99 × 109
× V/m = 5.14 × 1011 V/m (4.1)
r2 (5.29 × 10−11 )2

106 V/m

1.
CO2 CH4 O2

linear medium

⃗ =α·E
p ⃗ (4.2)

α 3×3
 
αxx αxy αxz
 
α=
αyx αyy αyz 
 (4.3)
αzx αzy αzz

CO2

CO2 CO2
2 isotropic medium
α

⃗ = αI · E
p ⃗ = αE
⃗ (4.4)

2
CO2 CO2
4.1 85

10−40 C · m2 · V−1
106 V/m 10−34 C · m

X
N X
N X
N 
⃗i =
p ⃗i =
αi E ⃗
αi E (4.5)
i i i

uniform medium linear,

isotropic and uniform medium LIU

X
N X
N 
⃗i =
p ⃗ = N αE
αi E ⃗ (4.6)
i i

2.
H2 O CO HCl
10−30 C · m
6.2 × 10−30 C · m

⃗0
p p0 E ≪ kB T

⃗
p20 E
⃗
p = (4.7)
3kB T
106 V/m
3 × 10−33 C · m

3
86

1.45 × 10−40 C · m2 · V−1 106 V/m

1.45 × 10−34 C · m
3 × 10−33 C · m

Ferroelectric Materials
BaTiO3

⃗
E
4.2 ⃗
P 87

4.2 ⃗
P

⃗
dS
N p ⃗
⃗ = qL
⃗
dS ⃗
dS

Nq
σe′ = (4.8)
dS

L
PN
Nq N qL ⃗i
i=1 p
σe′ = = = (4.9)
dS dS · L dV
PN
⃗i
i=1 p dV

⃗
p ⃗
dS
θ dV = dS · L cos θ
PN
Nq N qL ⃗i
i=1 p
σe′ = = = cos θ (4.10)
dS dS · L dV

⃗
P

PN
⃗ = ⃗i
i=1 p
P (4.11)
dV

dV

σe′ = P
⃗ ·n
⃗ (4.12)

⃗
n ⃗
P
C/m2

‹ ‹ ‹
′
Q = σe′ dS = ⃗ ·n
P ⃗ dS = ⃗ · dS
P ⃗ (4.13)
S S ⃗
S
88

˚ ‹
′
Q = ρ′e dV = −Q ′
=− ⃗ · dS
P ⃗ (4.14)
V ⃗
S

1.63
˚ ‹ ˚
ρ′e dV = − ⃗ · dS
P ⃗ =− ∇·P
⃗ dV (4.15)
V ⃗
S V

ρ′e = −∇ · P
⃗ (4.16)

2.16 ⃗′
r
⃗
r
⃗ · (⃗
p ⃗′)
r−r
U (⃗
r) = (4.17)
4πε0 |⃗ ⃗ ′ |3
r−r
⃗′
r dV ′ ⃗
r
P
· (⃗
⃗i
ip r−r ⃗′)
dU (⃗
r) = (4.18)
4πε0 |⃗
r−r ⃗ ′ |3

4.11

⃗ · (⃗
P r−r ⃗ ′ )dV ′
dU (⃗
r) = (4.19)
4πε0 |⃗
r−r ⃗ ′ |3

V′ ⃗
r
ˆ
U (⃗
r) = dU (⃗
r)
˚
1 ⃗ · (⃗
P ⃗ ′ )dV ′
r−r
= (4.20)
4πε0 V′ |⃗ ⃗ ′ |3
r−r

 
1 r ⃗′
⃗−r
∇′ = (4.21)
|⃗
r−r ⃗′| |⃗ ⃗ ′ |3
r−r

4.20 ∇ · (ϕF⃗ ) = ϕ∇ · F⃗ + (∇ϕ) · F⃗ 1.13

4.2 ⃗
P 89

˚  
1 ⃗ · ∇′ 1
U (⃗
r) = P ′|
dV ′
4πε0 V ′ |⃗
r − ⃗
r
˚   ⃗  ⃗ 
1 P ∇′ · P
= ∇′ · ′|
− ′|
dV ′
4πε0 V ′ |⃗
r − ⃗
r |⃗
r − ⃗
r
˚  ⃗  ˚
1 ′ P ′ 1 ∇′ · P⃗
= ∇ · ′|
dV − ′|
dV ′
4πε0 V ′ |⃗r − ⃗
r 4πε 0 V ′ |⃗
r − ⃗
r
‹ ⃗ ˚ ′
1 P ′ 1 ∇ ·P ⃗
= · ⃗
n dS − dV ′ (4.22)
4πε0 S ′ |⃗r−r ⃗′| 4πε0 V ′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

V′ ⃗
r

‹ ˚
1 σe′ (⃗
r′ ) 1 ρ′e (⃗
r′ )
U (⃗
r) = ′
dS ′ + dV ′ (4.23)
4πε0 S′ |⃗
r−r ⃗| 4πε0 V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

V′ :

σe′ = P
⃗ ·n
⃗, ρ′e = −∇ · P
⃗ (4.24)

⃗
P
⃗
P

⃗
E
⃗
P

⃗ = cE
P ⃗ (4.25)

c C2 /(N · m2 )

⃗ = χ e ε0 E
P ⃗ (4.26)

χe electric susceptibility

χe χe
90

4.1
z
⃗
P σe′

σe′ = P
⃗ ·n
⃗ = P cos θ (4.27)

θ θ 3.2

3.2 σ = 3ε0 E cos θ −E

−z σe′ = P cos θ

⃗
⃗′ = − P
E (4.28)
3ε0

4.2
R
r̂
⃗ = P r̂
P σe′ ρ′e
⃗′
E

σe′ = P
⃗ ·n
⃗ =P (4.29)

 
1 ∂(r2 · 1) 2P
ρ′e = −∇ · P
⃗ = −P ∇ · r̂ = −P =− (4.30)
r2 ∂r r

r
⃗
r r

⃗ r) = Q′
E(⃗ (4.31)
4πε0 r2

Q′ r
4.2 ⃗
P 91

1. r<R
˚ ˆ r ⃗
′ 2P ⃗ r) = − P
Q = ρ′e dV = − 4πr2 dr = −4πr2 P ⇒ E(⃗ (4.32)
0 r ε0

2. r>R

Q′ = Q′ + Q′ = −4πR2 P + 4πR2 P = 0 ⇒ ⃗ r) = 0
E(⃗ (4.33)

4.3
⃗0
E
χe
σ′ ⃗
P ⃗′
E
⃗
E

:
⃗
P

′ ′
σ+ = −σ− = P = σ′ (4.34)

′ ⃗
⃗ ′ = −σ = −P
E (4.35)
ε0 ε0

⃗′
E ⃗
P ⃗0
E
⃗
P ρ′ = −∇ · P
⃗ =0 ⃗′
E
⃗
P ⃗
P

⃗
⃗ = χe ε0 E
P ⃗ = χe ε0 (E
⃗0 + E ⃗0 − P )
⃗ ′ ) = χe ε0 (E (4.36)
ε0

⃗ = χe ⃗0
P ε0 E (4.37)
1 + χe

χe
σ′ = P = ε0 E0 (4.38)
1 + χe
⃗
⃗ ′ = − P = − χe E
E ⃗0 (4.39)
ε0 1 + χe
⃗ =E ⃗′ =
⃗0 + E 1 ⃗
E E0 (4.40)
1 + χe

χe > 0
92

E < E0

1 + χe εr

εr = 1 + χ e (4.41)

⃗
⃗ = E0
E (4.42)
εr

ε = εr ε 0 (4.43)

4.3 ⃗
D

4.3

ρ ρ0 + ρ′
∇·E
⃗ = = (4.44)
ε0 ε0

ρ′

ρ′ = −∇ · P
⃗ (4.45)

⃗
P ⃗
E

⃗ = χ e ε0 E
P ⃗ (4.46)

4.45 4.44

ρ0 − ∇ · P
⃗
∇·E
⃗ = (4.47)
ε0

∇ · (ε0 E
⃗ +P
⃗ ) = ρ0 (4.48)
4.3 ⃗
D 93

⃗ = ε0 E
D ⃗ +P
⃗ (4.49)

4.48

∇·D
⃗ = ρ0 (4.50)

⃗
D
⃗
D

⃗
D ⃗
D ⃗
E
⃗
E ⃗
D electric displacement
4.50 ⃗
D
‹ X
⃗ · dS
D ⃗= q0 = Q0 (4.51)
⃗
S ⃗
in S

Q0 Q0

⃗
E
⃗
P 4.49 ⃗
D ⃗
P ⃗
D ⃗
D
⃗
E ⃗
P

⃗
D ⃗
E

⃗ = ε0 E
D ⃗ +P
⃗ = ε0 E
⃗ + χ e ε0 E
⃗ = (1 + χe )ε0 E
⃗ = εr ε 0 E
⃗ = εE
⃗ (4.52)

4.4
R q
ε
⃗
E
σ′ ρ′

r S S
⃗
E ⃗
D ⃗
r ⃗
D
‹
q= ⃗ · dS
D ⃗ = 4πr2 D (4.53)
S
94

⃗ r) = q
D(⃗ r̂ (4.54)
4πr2

⃗
⃗ r ) = D = q r̂
E(⃗ (4.55)
ε 4πεr2

⃗
P

⃗ (⃗
P ⃗ = (εr − 1)ε0 E
r ) = χe ε0 E ⃗ = q(ε − ε0 ) r̂
⃗ = (ε − ε0 )E (4.56)
4πεr2

q(ε − ε0 )
σ′ = P ⃗ ·n
⃗ (R) ⃗ =P ⃗ · (−r̂) = −
⃗ (R) (4.57)
4πεR2

2.63

⃗ = − q(ε − ε0 ) ∇ · r̂ = − q(ε − ε0 ) 4πδ(⃗

ρ′ = −∇ · P r) = −
q(ε − ε0 )
δ(⃗
r) (4.58)
4πε r 2 4πε ε

r>0 ρ′ = 0

4.5
R
q
σ′ ρ′

:
r S
⃗
D
‹
q= ⃗ · dS
D ⃗ = 4πr2 D (4.59)
S

⃗ r) = q
D(⃗ r̂ (4.60)
4πr2



D⃗ q
= 4πεr 2 r̂, r < R,
⃗ r) = ε
E(⃗ (4.61)

D⃗
= q 2 r̂,
ε0 4πε0 r
r > R.

P ⃗ = q(ε − ε0 ) r̂
⃗ = (ε − ε0 )E (4.62)
4πεr2
4.4 95

q(ε − ε0 )
σ′ = P
⃗ ·n
⃗ = (4.63)
4πεR2
2.63

q(ε − ε0 ) r̂ q(ε − ε0 ) q(ε − ε0 )

ρ′ = −∇ · P
⃗ =− ∇· 2 =− r) = −
4πδ(⃗ δ(⃗
r) (4.64)
4πε r 4πε ε

4.4

∇·D
⃗ = ρ0 (4.65)
∇×E
⃗ =0 (4.66)
⃗ = ε0 E
D ⃗ +P
⃗ (4.67)

⃗
D ⃗
E

⃗
E 1 2
En1 , Eτ 1 , En2 , Eτ 2
l h C

˛
0= ⃗ · d⃗l = (Eτ 1 − Eτ 2 )l + (En2 − En1 )h
E (4.68)
C

C h h→0

0 = (Eτ 1 − Eτ 2 )l (4.69)
96

Eτ 1 = Eτ 2 (4.70)

En1 ̸= En2
σ ′ = σ0 + σ1′ + σ2′ σ0 σ1′ σ2′ 1
2 ⃗
E

σ′
En1 − En2 = (4.71)
ε0

ε0 En1 − ε0 En2 = σ ′ = σ0 + σ1′ + σ2′ (4.72)

⃗
P

σ1′ = −Pn1 , σ2′ = Pn2 (4.73)

4.72
ε0 En1 − ε0 En2 = σ0 − Pn1 + Pn2 (4.74)

(ε0 En1 + Pn1 ) − (ε0 En2 + Pn2 ) = σ0 (4.75)

⃗
D

Dn1 − Dn2 = σ0 (4.76)

⃗
D ⃗
D
∆S h

‹
⃗ · dS
D ⃗ = q0 (4.77)
S
⇒(Dn1 − Dn2 )∆S = σ0 ∆S (4.78)
⇒Dn1 − Dn2 = σ0 (4.79)

⃗
D

Dn1 = Dn2 (4.80)

4.4 97

1 2

En1 ε2
ε1 En1 = ε2 En2 ⇒ = (4.81)
En2 ε1

4.70
Eτ 1 /En1 ε1 tan θ1 ε1
= ⇒ = (4.82)
Eτ 2 /En2 ε2 tan θ2 ε2

θ1 θ2 ⃗1
E ⃗2
E

4.1: εr ⃗0
E

4.2: ρ0
ρ′

4.3: R1 R3
R2
εr1 εr2 λ0 (
R1 , R2 , R3 )
98
 2.6
2.6

5.1

q1
q2

q2 Q q1 P PQ r q1

q2
A1 = q1 U21 = q1 (5.1)
4πε0 r
U21 q2 q1

q2
∆W = q1 U21 = q1 (5.2)
4πε0 r

q1 q2 r

q2
W = q1 U21 = q1 (5.3)
4πε0 r

99
100

q2 Q q1 P
q1 P q2 Q

q1 q2
q1 U21 = q2 U12 = (5.4)
4πε0 r

1
W = (q1 U21 + q2 U12 ) (5.5)
2

n
n
q1 q1 ⃗1
r q2
⃗2
r ... qn ⃗n
r n
n
⃗1 , r
r ⃗2 , ..., r
⃗n

1. q1 ⃗1
r q1 0 0

2. q2 ⃗2
r q2 q1 q2 U12 U12
q1 ⃗2
r

3. q3 ⃗3
r q3 q1 q2
q3 U13 + q3 U 23

4. ...

5. qn ⃗n
r qn q1 , q2 , ..., qn−1
Pn−1
i=1 qn Uin

X
n−1
W = q2 U12 + (q3 U13 + q3 U 23) + ... + qn Uin (5.6)
i=1

5.5
 X
n−1 X
n−1 
1
W = (q1 U21 + q2 U12 ) + (q1 U31 + q2 U32 + q3 U13 + q3 U 23) + ... + ( qi Uni + qn Uin )
2 i i=1
1X n X 1X n
= qi Uji = qi U i (5.7)
2 i=1 j̸=i 2 i=1

Ui qi ⃗i
r N
5.1 101

1X n
W = qi U i (5.8)
2 i=1

ˆ ˚
1 1
W = U dq = U (⃗
r )ρ(⃗
r )dV (5.9)
2 Q 2 V

U dq dV Q
V

5.1
R Q

:
r
U (r) r r + dr dq

˚
1
W = U (⃗
r )ρ(⃗
r )dV (5.10)
2 V

U (r) 2.10


 Qr
4πε0 R3
r̂, r < R,
⃗ r) =
E(⃗ (5.11)

 Q 2 r̂,
4πε0 r
r ≥ R.

r
ˆ R ˆ ∞
U (r) = ⃗ · d⃗
E r+ E⃗ · d⃗
r
r R
ˆ R ˆ ∞
Qr Q
= 3
dr + 2
dr
r 4πε0 R R 4πε0 r
Q(R2 − r2 ) Q
= +
8πε0 R3 4πε0 R
Q
= (3R2 − r2 ) (5.12)
8πε0 R3

5.10
ˆ R
1 Q Q
W = 3
(3R2 − r2 ) 4 3 4πr2 dr
2 0 8πε0 R 3 πR
3Q2
= (5.13)
20πε0 R
102

5.2

5.9 (ρ = ε0 ∇ · E)
⃗ ρ
˚
1
W = U ρdV
2
˚V
1
= U (ε0 ∇ · E)dV
⃗
2
˚
V
1
= ε0 U ∇ · EdV
⃗ (5.14)
2 V

∇ · (U E)
⃗ = U∇ · E
⃗ + (∇U ) · E
⃗ 1.13
˚ ˚
1 1
W = ε0 ∇ · (U E)dV
⃗ − ε0 (∇U ) · EdV
⃗ (5.15)
2 V 2 V

¨ ˚
1 ⃗ − 1 ε0
⃗ · dS
W = ε0 UE (∇U ) · EdV
⃗ (5.16)
2 ⃗
S 2 V

V ⃗
S
r→∞
ˆ
1 1 ⃗ ∼ 1 →0
U (r) ∼ , E(r) ∼ 2 , S∼r 2
⇒ ⃗ · dS
UE (5.17)
r r ⃗
S r

˚ ˚ ˚
1 1 1
W = − ε0 (∇U ) · EdV
⃗ = ε0 ⃗ · EdV
E ⃗ = ε0 E 2 dV (5.18)
2 V 2 V V 2

˚ ˚
1
W = we dV = ε0 E 2 dV (5.19)
V V 2

we = 12 ε0 E 2
5.2 103

5.2
R Q

  2


 1 Qr
 2 ε0 4πε0 R3 , r < R,
1
w e = ε0 E 2 =  2 (5.20)
2 

 1 Q
 2 ε0 4πε0 r2 , r ≥ R.

˚
W = we dV
V
ˆ R  2 ˆ ∞  2
1 Qr 2 1 Q
= ε0 4πr dr + ε0 4πr2 dr
0 2 4πε0 R3 R 2 4πε0 r2
ˆ R 4 ˆ ∞ 
Q2 r 1
= 6
dr + 2
dr
8πε0 0 R R r
 
Q2 1 1
= +
8πε0 5R R
3Q2
= (5.21)
20πε0 R
1
˝
5.1 W = 2 V U ρdV

5.8 Ui qi
⃗i
r qi ⃗i
r

ρ 5.1

˚
1
W = U (⃗
r )ρ(⃗
r )dV (5.22)
2 V

ρ(⃗
r )dV U (⃗
r) U (⃗
r)
104

δr

δq ρ(δr)3
Uself ≈ ∝ ∝ (δr)2 (5.23)
4πε0 δr 4πε0 δr

δr → 0 Uself → 0
˚
1
Wself = Uself ρ(⃗
r )dV = 0 (5.24)
2 V

L λ

ˆ L/2 L/2
2 λdx 2λ
U= = ln x =∞ (5.25)
4πε0 0 x 4πε0 0

5.19 5.19

˚ ˆ ∞  2 ˆ ∞
1 1 q 1
W = ε0 E 2 dV = ε0 4πr dr ∝
2
dr = ∞ (5.26)
V 2 0 2 4πε0 r2 0 r2

5.19

˚
1 ⃗ ⃗
W = ε0 E · EdV
V˚ 2
1 X X
= ε0 ( E ⃗ i) · ( E ⃗ i )dV
2 V i i
˚ X XX 
1
= ε0 (Ei · Ei ) +
⃗ ⃗ (Ei · Ej ) dV
⃗ ⃗
2 V i i j̸=i
X1
˚ XX 1
˚
= ε0 Ei · Ei dV +
⃗ ⃗ ε0 E⃗i · E
⃗ j dV (5.27)
i
2 V i j̸=i
2 V

˝
⃗i
E qi 1 ⃗i · E
⃗ i dV
2 ε0 E
˝ V
ε0 ⃗i · E
E ⃗ j dV qi Uji
V
qi qj

qi qj
Wija = qi Uji = (5.28)
4πε0 |ri − rj |
˚
Wijb = ⃗i · E
ε0 E ⃗ j dV (5.29)
V

Wija = Wijb Wijb

5.3 105

˚
qi qj ⃗−r
r ⃗i ⃗−r
r ⃗j
Wijb = · qi qj d3 r
⃗ (5.30)
V ε0 4πε0 |⃗
r−r ⃗i |3 ε0 |⃗
−r
r⃗ j |3

⃗i − r
⃗a = r ⃗j â ⃗a

⃗−r
r ⃗i ⃗−r
r ⃗i
⃗ =
x = (5.31)
|⃗
ri − r
⃗j | a

⃗−r
r ⃗i = a⃗
x, ⃗−r
r ⃗j = a⃗ ⃗i − r
x+r ⃗j = a⃗
x + ⃗a = a(⃗
x + â) (5.32)

5.30
˚
qi qj a⃗x a(⃗x + â)
Wijb = 3 |⃗
· a3 d3 x
⃗
ε 0 4πε 0 a x | 3 4πε a3 |⃗
0 x + â| 3
V
˚
qi qj ⃗
x ⃗ + â 3
x
= · d x⃗
2
16π ε0 a V x
3 |⃗
x + â|3
˚
qi qj x⃗ 1
=− ·∇ d3 x
⃗
2
16π ε0 a V x 3 |⃗
x + â|
˚  
qi qj ⃗
x 1 x⃗
= −∇· 3 + ∇ · 3 d3 x ⃗
16π 2 ε0 a V x |⃗ x + â| |⃗ x + â| x
¨ ˚
qi qj ⃗
x ⃗ + qi qj 1 ⃗
x
=− · dS ∇ · 3 d3 x
⃗
16π ε0 a S⃗ x |⃗
2 3 x + â| 2
16π ε0 a V |⃗
x + â| x
˚
qi qj 1
=0+ 4πδ 3 (0)d3 x ⃗
16π 2 ε0 a V |⃗
x + â|
qi qj 4π
=
16π 2 ε0 a |0 + â|
qi qj qi qj
= = (5.33)
4πε0 a 4πε0 |⃗ri − r ⃗j |
˝
Wija = Wijb ε0 ⃗i·
E
V
⃗ j dV
E qi qj

5.9 5.19

5.3

5.1
106

5.9
˚
1
W = ρ0 (⃗
r )U (⃗
r )dV (5.34)
2 V

ρ0

U (⃗
r)

5.34 ρ0 = ∇ · D
⃗

˚
1
W = (∇ · D)U
⃗ dV
2
˚V
1
= (∇ · (U D)
⃗ −D ⃗ · (∇U ))dV
2
˚ V ˚
1 1
= ∇ · (U D)dV
⃗ − D⃗ · (∇U )dV
2 2
‹ V ˚ V
1 1
= U D · dS +
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ · EdV
D ⃗
2 S⃗ 2 V
˚
r2 1 ⃗ · EdV
⃗
= lim 3 + D
r→∞ r 2
˚ V
1 ⃗ · EdV
⃗
= D (5.35)
2 V

⃗ = ε0 E
D ⃗ +P
⃗

˚ ˚ ˚
1 ⃗ · EdV
⃗ 1 1⃗ ⃗
W = D = ε0 E 2 dV + P · EdV (5.36)
2 V V 2 V 2

1⃗ ⃗ 1 1⃗ ⃗
we = D · E = ε0 E 2 + P ·E (5.37)
2 2 2
1 ⃗
1
2 ε0 E
2
2P ·E
⃗

⃗
P 1 ⃗
·E
⃗
2P
⃗
p 1
2p⃗ ·E
⃗

t ⃗l ⃗
E t + dt
5.4 107

⃗l + d⃗l ⃗ + dE
E ⃗ dt

dW = F⃗+ · d⃗l+ + F⃗− · d⃗l− (5.38)

d⃗l+ , d⃗l− +q −q d⃗l+ − d⃗l− = d⃗l F⃗+ =

⃗ F⃗− = −q E
q E, ⃗

⃗ · d⃗l+ − q E
dW = q E ⃗ · d⃗l−
⃗ · (d⃗l+ − d⃗l− )
= qE
⃗ · d⃗l
= qE
⃗ · d⃗
=E p (5.39)

p = qd⃗l
d⃗ dt p ⃗
⃗ = αE d⃗ ⃗
p = αdE

⃗ · dE
dW = αE ⃗ (5.40)

ˆ ˆ
W = dW = αE ⃗ = 1 αE
⃗ · dE ⃗ = 1p
⃗ ·E ⃗·E
⃗ (5.41)
2 2

5.36
˚ ˚ ˚
1 1 1
W = ρ0 U dV = (ρ0 + ρ′ )U dV + (−ρ′ )U dV (5.42)
V 2 v 2 V 2
ρ0 , ρ′ U

5.4

5.1
108

capacitor

capacitance

Q
C= (5.43)
U

Farad F 1F = 1C/V

Q
U= (5.44)
4πε0 R

Q
C= = 4πε0 R (5.45)
U

Q ∆U Q
∆U d S ε
±Q

σ0 Q
∆U = Ed = d= d (5.46)
ε Sε

Q Sε
C= = (5.47)
∆U d
ε

5.3

R
5.4 109

λ r :

λ
E= (5.48)
2πε0 r

ˆ ∞
λ
U= Edr = ln R (5.49)
R 2πε0

λ 2πε0
C= = (5.50)
U ln R

5.4

R1
R2 ε

λ
E= (5.51)
2πε0 r

ˆ R2
λ R2
∆U = Edr = ln (5.52)
R1 2πε0 R1

λ 2πε0
C= = (5.53)
∆U ln R
R1
2

5.5

C U

:
110

ˆ Q ˆ Q
q Q2 1 1
W = udq = dq = = QU = CU 2 (5.54)
0 0 C 2C 2 2

5.8

5.1: Q R

5.2: CMOS 130nm gate channel

oxide 2nm
3.9 µm2

5.3: 1F

5.4: 1000
cm 1m2 1F

5.5: R1 R3
R2
εr1 εr2
 -

6.1 -

6 Thales of Miletu
2

S N S N
N S
N N S
N
S

111
112

qm1 qm2
F⃗ = k r̂ (6.1)
r2
qm1 , qm2
magnetic monopole

1931

19

1820 · · Hans Christian Ørsted

1820 7 21
Experiments on the Effect of a Current of Electricity on the Magnetic Needle

1.
N

2.
N

3. conflict of electricity
6.1 - 113

- ·
Jean-Baptiste Biot · Félix Savart

(a)
P r α Idl P dF
I, dl, r, α

dF = dF (I, dl, r, α) (6.2)

(a)

(b)
P F (I, r)
F (c)
N F⃗ S

θ F⃗
(b)

M = I θ̈ (6.3)

I M
(c)
l

M = −F l sin θ ≈ −F lθ (6.4)

I θ̈ + F lθ = 0 (6.5)

s
lF
ω= (6.6)
I

I 2
F = ω (6.7)
l
114

F
F (I, r)
dF (I, dl, r, α)

P α
P I, r, α
F (I, r, α)

1. I F I F ∝I

2. r F r F ∝ 1
r

3. α F α F ∝ tan α2

I α
F (I, r, α) = k tan (6.8)
r 2

P
P α P
6.8

F (I, r, α)
Idl P dF (I, dl, r, α)

dl P
P

dF (I, dl, r, α) = F (I, r + dr, α + dα) − F (I, r, α)

∂F ∂F
= dr + dα
∂r ∂α
∂F dr ∂F dα
= dl + dl
∂r dl ∂α dl
 
∂F dr ∂F dα
= + dl (6.9)
∂r dl ∂α dl

dr dα
dl dl

dα sin α
dl sin α = (r + dr) sin(dα) ≈ rdα ⇒ = (6.10)
dl r

dr
dl cos α = r − (r + dr) cos(dα) ≈ −dr ⇒ = − cos α (6.11)
dl
6.1 - 115

6.9
 
∂F dr ∂F dα
dF (I, dl, r, α) = + dl
∂r dl ∂α dl
 
I α I 1 sin α
= (−k 2 tan )(− cos α) + (k α )( ) dl
r 2 2r cos2 2 r
I α sin α
= k 2 (tan cos α + )dl
r 2 2 cos2 α2
I
= k 2 sin αdl (6.12)
r

Idl P

6.12

Id⃗l × r̂
dF⃗ = k (6.13)
r2

1820 10
6.12 -

-
Id⃗l1 Id⃗l2 F⃗12

µ0 I1 I2 d⃗l2 × (d⃗l1 × r̂12 )

dF⃗12 = 2 (6.14)
4πr12

µ0 4π × 10−7 N/A2

⃗
B
⃗
B l I F I
l
F
B= (6.15)
Il
⃗
B Tesla T 1T=1 N
A·m
Id⃗l ⃗
B Id⃗l ⃗
B

dF⃗ = Id⃗l × B
⃗ (6.16)

-
116

6.1 -
Id⃗l P ⃗
dB

⃗ = µ0 Id⃗l × r̂
dB (6.17)
4πr2

⃗
r P

ˆ ˆ
⃗ r) = ⃗ = µ0 Id⃗l′ × (⃗
r−r ⃗′)
B(⃗ dB (6.18)
4π|⃗r−r ⃗ ′ |3
´ ´ ´ ´
Id⃗l′ = d⃗l′ S J⃗dS ′ = V′ r ′ )dV ′
J⃗(⃗
ˆ
⃗ r) = r ′ ) × (⃗
µ0 J⃗(⃗ r−r ⃗′) ′
B(⃗ dV (6.19)
V′ 4π|⃗ r−r ⃗ ′ |3

6.1
P

:
- d Id⃗l P

⃗ = µ0 Id⃗l × r̂
dB (6.20)
4πr2

⃗
dB

µ0 Idl sin θ µ0 Id(−r0 / tan θ) sin θ µ0 I sin θ

dB = = dθ = dθ (6.21)
4πr2 4π(r0 / sin θ)2 4πr0

ˆ ˆ θ2
µ0 I sin θ µ0 I
B= dB = dθ = (cos θ1 − cos θ2 ) (6.22)
θ1 4πr0 4πr0
θ1 = 0, θ2 = π

µ0 I
B= (6.23)
2πr0
6.1 - 117

θ1 = 0, θ2 = π/2

µ0 I
B= (6.24)
4πr0

6.2
R P

Id⃗l P
−−→ −−→
⃗ µ0 Id⃗l × r
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ µ0 Id⃗l × OP µ0 Id⃗l × QO
dB = = dB⊥ + dB∥ = + (6.25)
4πr3 4πr3 4πr3

ˆ ˆ
⃗ =B
B ⃗⊥ + B
⃗∥ = ⃗⊥ +
dB ⃗∥
dB (6.26)
´
⃗⊥
dB ⃗⊥ =
B ⃗⊥ = 0
dB

ˆ −−→ ˆ
µ0 Id⃗l × QO µ0 IRdl µ0 IR2 µ0 IR2
B = B∥ = 3
= 3
= 3
= (6.27)
4πr 4πr 2r 2(R2 + z 2 )3/2

⃗ −−→
B OP

1. z=0
µ0 I
B= (6.28)
2R

2. z≫R
µ0 IR2 µ0 IS
B≈ 3
= (6.29)
2z 2πz 3
S

magnetic dipole
magnetic dipole moment ⃗
m ⃗m
p

m ⃗
⃗ = IS (6.30)

⃗
S

⃗
⃗ = µ0 m
B (6.31)
2πz 3
118

6.3
Helmholtz

µ0 IR2 µ0 IR2
B = B1 + B2 = + (6.32)
2[R2 + (x + a2 )2 ]3/2 2[R2 + (x − a2 )2 ]3/2

B x
 
dB 3µ0 IR2 x + a2 x − a2
=− + (6.33)
dx 2 [R2 + (x + a2 )2 ]5/2 [R2 + (x − a2 )2 ]5/2

x=0  
dB
=0 (6.34)
dx x=0

 
d2 B 3µ0 IR2 R2 − 4(x + a2 )2 R2 − 4(x − a2 )2
= − + (6.35)
dx2 2 [R2 + (x + a2 )2 ]7/2 [R2 + (x − a2 )2 ]7/2
x=0  2 
d B R 2 − a2
= −3µ0 IR2 (6.36)
dx2 x=0 (R2 + a2 /4)7/2
a=R
 2 
d B
=0 (6.37)
dx2 x=0

 
d3 B 3µ0 IR2 (x + a2 )[15R2 − 20(x + a2 )2 ] (x − a2 )[15R2 − 20(x − a2 )2 ]
= + (6.38)
dx3 2 [R2 + (x + a2 )2 ]9/2 [R2 + (x − a2 )2 ]9/2

x=0  3 
d B
=0 (6.39)
dx3 x=0

B(x) x=0 B(x) x=0

 
x4 d4 B
B(x) = B(0) + (6.40)
4! dx4 x=0

O(x4 )/B(0) ∼ x4 /R4

x = R/2 O(x4 )/B(0) ∼ 6% x = R/4 O(x4 )/B(0) ∼ 0.4%
6.2 119

x = 0

6.4
R
n O

:
O
O z 6.2
z dz O

µ0 IR2 ndz
dB = (6.41)
2(R2 + z 2 )3/2

ˆ ˆ l2
µ0 IR2 n dz
B= dB = (6.42)
2 −l1 (R2 + z 2 )3/2
z = R/ tan θ
ˆ
µ0 IR2 n θ2
−Rdθ/ sin2 θ nµ0 I
B= 3 3 = (cos θ2 − cos θ1 ) (6.43)
2 θ1 R / sin θ 2

1. θ1 = π, θ2 = 0

B = µ0 nI (6.44)

2. θ1 = π/2, θ2 = 0

B = µ0 nI/2 (6.45)

6.2

-
-
/ ⃗
B

⃗
B 8.20
120

ˆ ˆ
r ′ ) × (⃗
µ0 J⃗(⃗ r−r ⃗′) ′ µ0 1
∇ · B(⃗
⃗ r) = ∇ · dV = − ∇ · r′ ) × ∇
J⃗(⃗ dV ′ (6.46)
V′ 4π|⃗ r−r ⃗ ′ |3 4π V ′ |⃗
r − ⃗
r ′|

∇ × (ϕ⃗a) = (∇ϕ) × ⃗a + ϕ(∇ × ⃗a) 1.13

ˆ   ˆ
⃗ r ) = µ0 ∇ · r′ )
J⃗(⃗ r′ )
∇ × J⃗(⃗ ′ µ0 r′ )
J⃗(⃗
∇ · B(⃗ ∇× − dV = ∇ · ∇ × dV ′
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′| |⃗
r−r ⃗′| 4π V ′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|
(6.47)

∇ · ∇ × ⃗a = 0 1.1

∇·B
⃗ =0 (6.48)

‹
⃗ · dS
B ⃗ =0 (6.49)
⃗
S

⃗
B 6.46 6.47
ˆ ˆ
µ0 r′ )
J⃗(⃗ ′ µ0 r′ )
J⃗(⃗
∇ × B(⃗
⃗ r) = ∇× ∇× dV = ∇ × (∇ × )dV ′ (6.50)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′| 4π V ′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

∇×(∇×⃗a) = ∇(∇·⃗a)−∇2 ⃗a 1.1 ∇·(ϕ⃗a) = ϕ∇·⃗a +(∇ϕ)·⃗a

1.13

r′ )
J⃗(⃗ r′ )
J⃗(⃗ ⃗ r′ )
2 J (⃗
∇ × (∇ × ) = ∇(∇ · ) − ∇ (6.51)
|⃗
r−r ⃗′| |⃗
r−r ⃗′| |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

r′ )
J⃗(⃗ ⃗
r

r′ )
J⃗(⃗ r′ )
J⃗(⃗ 1
∇ × (∇ × ′
) = ∇(∇ · r ′ )∇2
) − J⃗(⃗ (6.52)
|⃗
r−r ⃗| |⃗
r−r ⃗′| |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

⃗−⃗r′
∇2 |⃗r−⃗
1
r ′ | = −∇ ·
r
|⃗ r ′ |3
r −⃗
= −4πδ(⃗ ⃗′)
r−r

r′ )
J⃗(⃗ r′ )
J⃗(⃗
∇ × (∇ × ) = ∇(∇ · ⃗ ′ )J⃗(⃗
r−r
) + 4πδ(⃗ r′ ) (6.53)
|⃗
r−r ⃗′| |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

∇ · (ϕ⃗a) = ϕ∇ · ⃗a + (∇ϕ) · ⃗a
6.2 121

r′ )
J⃗(⃗ r′ )
∇ · J⃗(⃗ 1
∇· ′
= ′
r′ ) · ∇
+ J⃗(⃗ (6.54)
|⃗
r−r ⃗| |⃗
r−r ⃗| |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

r′ )
J⃗(⃗ ⃗
r r′ ) = 0
∇ · J⃗(⃗

r′ )
J⃗(⃗ 1
∇· ′
r′ ) · ∇
= J⃗(⃗ (6.55)
|⃗
r−r ⃗| |⃗
r−r ⃗′|
∇ |⃗r−⃗ ′ 1 ∇′ ⃗′
r ′ | = −∇ |⃗
1
r′ |
r −⃗ r

r′ )
J⃗(⃗ 1
∇· ′
r ′ ) · ∇′
= −J⃗(⃗ (6.56)
|⃗
r−r ⃗| |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

∇ · (ϕ⃗a) = ϕ∇ · ⃗a + (∇ϕ) · ⃗a

r′ )
J⃗(⃗ ′ r′ )
J⃗(⃗ r′ )
∇′ · J⃗(⃗
∇· = −∇ · + (6.57)
|⃗
r−r ⃗′| |⃗
r−r ⃗′| |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

r′ )
∇′ · J⃗(⃗
r ′ ) = − ∂ρ(⃗
∂t

r′ )
J⃗(⃗ ′ r′ )
J⃗(⃗ ∂ ρ(⃗r′ )
∇· = −∇ · − (6.58)
|⃗
r−r ⃗′| |⃗
r−r ⃗ ′ | ∂t |⃗
r−r⃗′|

6.53
 
r′ )
J⃗(⃗ ′ r′ )
J⃗(⃗ ∂ ρ(⃗ r′ )
∇ × (∇ × ) = −∇ ∇ · + + 4πδ(⃗ r−r ⃗ ′ )J⃗(⃗
r′ )
|⃗
r−r ⃗′| |⃗
r−r ⃗ ′ | ∂t |⃗r−r ⃗′|
 
r′ )
J⃗(⃗ ∂ 1
= −∇ ∇′ · ′
− ρ(⃗ r ′ )∇ + 4πδ(⃗ r−r ⃗ ′ )J⃗(⃗
r′ )
|⃗
r−r ⃗| ∂t |⃗
r−r ⃗′|
 
r′ )
J⃗(⃗ ∂ ′ r ⃗−r ⃗′
= −∇ ∇′ · + ρ(⃗
r ) + 4πδ(⃗ r−r ⃗ ′ )J⃗(⃗r′ ) (6.59)
|⃗
r−r ⃗′| ∂t |⃗
r−r ⃗ ′ |3

ˆ ˆ
µ0 J⃗(⃗r′ ) µ0 ∂ ′ r ⃗−r⃗′
∇ × B(⃗
⃗ r) = − ∇ ∇′ · ′|
dV ′
+ ρ(⃗
r ) ′ |3
dV ′
4π ′ |⃗
r − ⃗
r 4π ′ ∂t |⃗
r − ⃗
r
ˆ V V
µ0 ′ ⃗ ′ ′
+ 4πδ(⃗ r−r ⃗ )J (⃗ r )dV
4π V ′
‹
µ0 r′ ) ⃗ ′
J⃗(⃗ ⃗ r)
∂ E(⃗
=− ∇ dS + µ 0 ε 0 + µ0 J⃗(⃗ r)
4π ⃗ ′ |⃗
S r−r ⃗′| ∂t
(6.60)

⃗′
S r′ )
J⃗(⃗ 0

⃗ r)
⃗ r ) = µ0 ε0 ∂ E(⃗
∇ × B(⃗ + µ0 J⃗(⃗
r) (6.61)
∂t
122

∇×B
⃗ = µ0 J⃗ (6.62)

˛ ¨
⃗ · d⃗l = µ0
B J⃗ · dS
⃗ = µ0 I (6.63)
C ⃗
S

C I ⃗
S I

6.1 +
‹
∇·B
⃗ =0 ⃗ · dS
B ⃗ =0 (6.64)
⃗
S
˛
∇×B
⃗ = µ0 J⃗(⃗
r) ⃗ · d⃗l = µ0 I
B (6.65)
C

6.5
⃗k

z Bz = 0
Bx

h ⃗
S S0
h/2 h
‹
⃗ ·S
B ⃗ = 2Bx S0 = 0 ⇒ Bx = 0 (6.66)
vS

By
l h
˛
⃗ · d⃗l = 2By l = µ0 I = µ0 Kl µ0 K
B ⇒ By = (6.67)
2
6.2 123

±ŷ
µ0 K
B= (6.68)
2

6.6

R J⃗

˛
⃗ · d⃗l = 2πrB = µ0 I µ0 I
B ⇒ B= (6.69)
2πr
r<R
µ0 I µ0 Jπr2 µ0 Jr
B= = = (6.70)
2πr 2πr 2
r>R
µ0 I µ0 JπR2 µ0 I
B= = = (6.71)
2πr 2πr 2πr
6.1 - 6.23

6.7
R r
J⃗

R J⃗ r
−J⃗
124

6.70

⃗ = µ0 J⃗ × r
B ⃗ (6.72)
2

⃗ =B
B ⃗ ⃗ = µ0 J⃗ × r
⃗ ⃗+B µ0
⃗1 − J⃗ × r
⃗2 =
µ0 ⃗
J × (⃗
r1 − r
⃗2 ) =
µ0 ⃗
J × ⃗a (6.73)
J −J 2 2 2 2

⃗
B

6.8
R L
n I

6.4

⃗ 0 = µ0 nI cos θẑ
B (6.74)

θ = arctan 2R
L

Id⃗l Id⃗l′ x
P

⃗
B ⃗′
⃗ +B
=B
⃗ µ0 Id⃗l′ × r
µ0 Id⃗l × r ⃗′
3
= + ′3
r r
µ0 I ⃗
= 3 (dl × r ⃗ + d⃗l′ × r⃗′) (6.75)
r
d⃗l = (dlx , dly , dlz ), r
⃗ = (rx , ry , rz ) d⃗l′ = (−dlx , dly , dlz ), r
⃗ = (−rx , ry , rz )

d⃗l × r
⃗ = d⃗l′ × r
⃗′ , d⃗l × r
⃗ = −d⃗l′ × r
⃗′ , d⃗l × r
⃗ = −d⃗l′ × r
⃗′ (6.76)
x x y y z z

B ,y = 0, B ,z =0 ⃗
B
6.2 125

⃗
B z
⃗
B
l h
˛
0= ⃗ · d⃗l = B
B ,z l −B ,z l +B ,y h −B ,y h (6.77)

B ,y =B ,y =0

B ,z =B ,z ⇒ B =B (6.78)

⃗0
B

⃗
B
l
h
˛
⃗ · d⃗l = B l − B l = nµ0 Il
B (6.79)

B = B0 = nµ0 Il cos θ

B = nµ0 Il(cos θ − 1) (6.80)

−z

⃗
B = µ0 nI cos θẑ, ⃗
B = nµ0 Il(cos θ − 1)ẑ (6.81)

cos θ = 1

⃗
B = µ0 nI ẑ, ⃗
B =0 (6.82)

B
µ0 nI 0

L≫R
6.81
p
B 1 R2 + (L/2)2 1 R2 R2
=1− =1− ≈ 1 − (1 + 4 2 ) = 2 2 (6.83)
B cos θ L/2 2 L L

6.80
126

6.9
r toroidal
solenoid N I

:
O
⃗
B

P
µ0 I
B= (6.84)
2πr

µ0 N I
B= (6.85)
2πr
N
n= 2πr

B=0 (6.86)

6.3

-
Id⃗l × (⃗
r− ⃗′)
r

˚
r ′ )dV ′
ρ(⃗
U (⃗
r) =
V′ 4πε0 |⃗
r−r ⃗′|
⃗ r ) = −∇U (⃗
E(⃗ r) (6.87)
6.3 127

∇·B
⃗ = 0, ∇×B
⃗ = µ0 J⃗(⃗
r) (6.88)

⃗
B ⃗ = ∇U
B
1.1
∇ × ∇Φ = 0 (6.89)

∇×B
⃗ = ∇ × ∇U = 0 (6.90)

6.88

1.1

∇ · (∇ × F⃗ ) = 0 (6.91)

⃗
B ⃗ = ∇×A
B ⃗
6.88 ∇·B
⃗ =0

⃗
B ⃗
A

6.2
1/r F⃗ (⃗
r)

r ) = −∇U (⃗
F⃗ (⃗ r ) + ∇ × A(⃗
⃗ r) (6.92)

6.92
U (⃗r) ⃗ r)
A(⃗ F⃗ , U, A
⃗
δ F⃗ (⃗
r)
˚ ˚  
1 2 1
F⃗ (⃗
r) = r ′ )δ(⃗
F⃗ (⃗ ⃗ ′ )dV ′ =
r−r r′ ) −
F⃗ (⃗ ∇ ′|
dV ′ (6.93)
V′ V ′ 4π |⃗
r − ⃗
r

r′ )
F⃗ (⃗ ⃗
r
˚
1 r′ )
F⃗ (⃗
r ) = − ∇2
F⃗ (⃗ dV ′ (6.94)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|
128

∇ × (∇ × ⃗a) = ∇(∇ · ⃗a) − ∇2 ⃗a

˚ ˚
1 r′ )
F⃗ (⃗ ′ 1 r′ )
F⃗ (⃗
r) = − ∇
F⃗ (⃗ ∇· ′|
dV + ∇ × ∇ × ′|
dV ′ (6.95)
4π V ′ |⃗
r − ⃗
r 4π V ′ |⃗
r − ⃗
r

r′ )
F⃗ (⃗ ⃗
r ∇ · (ϕ⃗a) = ϕ∇ · ⃗a + (∇ϕ) · ⃗a ∇ × (ϕ⃗a) =
(∇ϕ) × ⃗a + ϕ(∇ × ⃗a)
˚ ˚
1 1 1 1
r) = − ∇
F⃗ (⃗ r′ ) · ∇
F⃗ (⃗ ′
dV ′
− ∇ × r′ ) × ∇
F⃗ (⃗ ′|
dV ′
4π ′ |⃗
r − ⃗
r | 4π ′ |⃗
r − ⃗
r
˚V ′ ˚V
1 ⃗
r − r⃗ 1 ⃗−r
r ⃗′
=− ∇ r′ ) ·
F⃗ (⃗ dV ′
− ∇ × F ⃗ (⃗
r ′
) × dV ′ (6.96)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗ ′ |3 4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗ ′ |3

V′ r′ → ∞ r′ )
F (⃗
r′ → ∞ 1/r′ U (⃗
r)
⃗ r)
A(⃗ ˚
1 1
U (⃗
r) = r′ ) · ∇
F⃗ (⃗ dV ′ (6.97)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|
˚
⃗ r) = − 1
A(⃗ r′ ) × ∇
F⃗ (⃗
1
dV ′ (6.98)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|
∇ |⃗r−⃗ ′ 1
r ′ | = −∇ |⃗
1
r′ |
r −⃗

˚
1 1
r) = −
U (⃗ F⃗ (⃗r ′ ) · ∇′ dV ′ (6.99)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|
˚
1 1
⃗
A(⃗r) = F⃗ (⃗r ′ ) × ∇′ ′|
dV ′ (6.100)
4π V ′ |⃗r − ⃗
r

∇ · (ϕ⃗a) = ϕ∇ · ⃗a + (∇ϕ) · ⃗a ∇ × (ϕ⃗a) = (∇ϕ) × ⃗a + ϕ(∇ × ⃗a)

˚ ˚
1 ∇′ · F⃗ (⃗
r′ ) ′ 1 ′ r′ )
F⃗ (⃗
U (⃗
r) = dV − ∇ · dV ′ (6.101)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′| 4π V ′ |⃗
r − ⃗
r ′|
˚ ˚
⃗ r) = 1 ∇′ × F⃗ (⃗ r′ ) ′ 1 ′ r′ )
F⃗ (⃗
A(⃗ dV − ∇ × dV ′ (6.102)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′| 4π V ′ |⃗
r − ⃗
r ′|

1.2
˚ ‹
1 ∇′ · F⃗ (⃗
r′ ) ′ 1 r′ )
F⃗ (⃗ ⃗′
U (⃗
r) = dV − · dS (6.103)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′| 4π S ′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|
˚ ‹
⃗ r) = 1 ∇′ × F⃗ (⃗ r′ ) ′ 1 r′ )
F⃗ (⃗ ⃗′
A(⃗ dV + × dS (6.104)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′| 4π S ′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

⃗′
S F 1/r

F (r) 2
lim r =0
r→∞ r
6.3 129

˚ ˚
1 ∇′ · F⃗ (⃗
r′ ) ′ ⃗ r) = 1 ∇′ × F⃗ (⃗
r′ ) ′
U (⃗
r) = dV , A(⃗ dV (6.105)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′| 4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

⃗
B

⃗ = −∇U + ∇ × A
B ⃗ (6.106)

0=∇·B
⃗ = −∇ · ∇U + ∇ · (∇ × A)
⃗ = −∇ · ∇U (6.107)

∇ × ∇U = 0 (6.108)

∇U ∇U ⃗ =0
B
∇U = 0

⃗ =∇×A
B ⃗ (6.109)

⃗
A

⃗
6.109
A ⃗
A ⃗ = ∇×A
B ⃗
⃗
A A⃗′ = A
⃗ + ∇Φ ⃗
B
⃗′ = ∇×A
B ⃗′ = ∇ × A
⃗ + ∇ × ∇Φ = ∇ × A⃗ =B
⃗ ⃗
A
⃗
A ⃗
A

∇·A
⃗ =0 (6.110)

Coulomb gauge

µ0 J⃗ = ∇ × B
⃗ =∇×∇×A
⃗ = ∇(∇ · A)
⃗ − ∇2 A
⃗ = −∇2 A
⃗ (6.111)

⃗
A

∇2 A
⃗ = −µ0 J⃗ (6.112)

˚
⃗ r ) = µ0 r′ )
J⃗(⃗
A(⃗ dV ′ (6.113)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

6.105 ∇×B
⃗ = µ0 J⃗
130

6.113 ⃗
A ⃗
A
⃗
A ......

6.10

:
xy
P xz P ⃗
A
˚ ˆ
⃗ r ) = µ0 J⃗dV ′ µ0 I r′
d⃗
A(⃗ = (6.114)
4π V′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′| 4π r⃗′ |⃗
r−r ⃗′|

⃗ = (r sin θ, 0, r cos θ)
r

⃗ ′ = (R cos ϕ′ , R sin ϕ′ , 0)
r
q
|⃗ ⃗′| =
r−r r2 + R2 − 2rR sin θ cos ϕ′

r ′ = (− sin ϕ′ , cos ϕ′ , 0)Rdϕ′

d⃗

ˆ
µ0 IR π
− sin ϕ′ dϕ′
Ax (⃗
r) = p (6.115)
4π −π r2 + R2 − 2rR sin θ cos ϕ′

ϕ′ Ax (⃗
r) = 0 ⃗ r)
A(⃗ y
ˆ
µ0 IR π
cos ϕ′ dϕ′
Ay (⃗
r) = p (6.116)
4π −π r2 + R2 − 2rR sin θ cos ϕ′

r≫R
ˆ
µ0 IR π cos ϕ′ rR
r) ≈
Ay (⃗ √ (1 + 2 sin θ cos ϕ′ )dϕ′
4π −π r2 + R2 r + R2
µ0 IR rR
= √ (0 + 2 π sin θ)
2
4π r + R 2 r + R2
µ0 IR2 sin θ
≈ (6.117)
4r2

P xz P ⃗
A y P ⃗
A
ϕ
µ0 IR2 sin θ
Aϕ (r, θ, ϕ = 0) = (6.118)
4r2
6.4 131

⃗ =∇×A
B ⃗

1 ∂(sin θAϕ ) µ0 IR2 cos θ

Br = = (6.119)
r sin θ ∂θ 2r3
1 ∂(rAϕ ) 2
µ0 IR sin θ
Bθ = − = (6.120)
r ∂r 4r3
Bϕ = 0 (6.121)

⃗
A ⃗
B
⃗ ×r
⃗ = µ0 m ⃗
A 3
(6.122)
4π r
⃗ · r̂)r̂ − m
⃗ = µ0 3(m ⃗
B 3
(6.123)
4π r

2.117 2.24

⃗
A ⃗
A ⃗
B
⃗
A
⃗
A ⃗
A

6.4

1
dF⃗ = Id⃗l × B
⃗ (6.124)

6.124

dQ ⃗ ⃗ d⃗l
dF⃗ = dl × B = dQ × B v×B
⃗ = dQ⃗ ⃗ (6.125)
dt dt

dQ Id⃗l ⃗
v
q v

v×B
F⃗ = q⃗ ⃗ (6.126)
132

Lorentz Force

F⃗ = q E v×B
⃗ + q⃗ ⃗ (6.127)

6.126

6.126

2
v⊥ mv⊥
F = qv⊥ B = m ⇒ R= (6.128)
R qB

1. 6.128

2πR 2πm
T = = (6.129)
v qB

Ernest Lawrence

2.

3.

˛ ˛
F⃗ = Id⃗l × B
⃗ = I( d⃗l) × B
⃗ =0 (6.130)
L L
6.4 133

ABCD BC
DA

F⃗AB = −F⃗CD , F⃗BC = −F⃗DA (6.131)

OO′ F⃗AB F⃗CD OO′

F⃗BC F⃗DA OO′
OO′
OO′ ⃗
B θ OO′

L = F1 d1 cos θ + F2 d2 cos θ = IBh(d1 + d2 ) cos θ = IBhd cos θ (6.132)

L ⃗ ×B
⃗ =m ⃗ (6.133)

⃗
m m = Ihd

⃗
B
DA BC

dF = IBdh (6.134)

dh AB DC

dL = dF d cos θ = IBddh cos θ (6.135)

d AB ddh = dS = SABCD

dL = B cos θdS (6.136)

ˆ
L= dL = BS cos θ (6.137)

L ⃗ ×B
⃗ =m ⃗ (6.138)
134

6.1: (LHC) CMS

(Compact Muon Solenoid), ( a )
b
12m 3m 2000

1. c
( sagitta s)
s
30 GeV(1 GeV = 1.6 × 10−10 J) c
s > 4.5 cm B

2. b 1)

a. b. c.

6.2: (LHC) ATLAS

(Toroid) a 8

1. b 100 25m 5m
20000A O B

2. c 100
10cm ( )
B B

a. b. c.
6.4 135

6.3: R σ z ω
⃗ r)
A(⃗ ⃗ r)
B(⃗
136
 ⃗
M

⃗
H

⃗
B ⃗
H

7.1

1.

m = IS = qvπR2

orbital magnetic dipole moment

p
µl = l(l + 1)µB µl,z = −ml µB
l, ml µB = eℏ
2me = 9.27 × 10−24 A · m2

2. spin magnetic dipole mo-

ment

137
138

√
µs = 3µB
µs,z = ±µB

ferromagnetic materials

⃗
B

⃗′
B ⃗′
B
⃗
B
diamagnetism
diamagnetic materials

N N

1933 Walther Meissner

⃗
∆m

⃗
∆m

1
7.2 ⃗
M 139

⃗
B
OO′ AD BC
⃗
B
⃗
m ⃗
B

⃗
m ⃗
B ⃗
m ⃗
B

⃗′
B
⃗
B
paramagnetism paramagnetic materials

1%

7.2 ⃗
M

⃗0
B
⃗′
B
⃗ =B
B ⃗′
⃗0 + B ⃗
P

⃗′
B
140

⃗
m

⃗′
K h
N m ⃗
⃗ = IS ⃗′
K

NI Nm
K′ = = (7.1)
h Sh
Nm S h
Sh ⃗
M
P
⃗ = ⃗i
im
M (7.2)
∆V

⃗
M
⃗
M

⃗
m

K ′ = M sin θ (7.3)

⃗′=M
K ⃗ ×n
⃗ (7.4)

⃗
n

yz
ABCD dydz I J⃗′ x

I ′ = Jx′ dydz (7.5)

J⃗′ z y
yz dydz z
⃗z
m ⃗z
m
⃗z
m y
7.2 ⃗
M 141

⃗z
m y + dy y

∂Mz
I ′ = Ky′ (y + dy)dz − Ky′ (y)dz = (Mz (y + dy) − Mz (y))dz = dydz (7.6)
∂y

y ⃗y
m

∂My
I ′ = Kz′ (z + dz)dy − Kz′ (z)dy = (−My (z + dz) + My (z))dy = − dydz (7.7)
∂z

dydz ⃗y
m ⃗z
m

∂Mz ∂My ∂Mz ∂My

I′ = dydz − dydz = ( − )dydz (7.8)
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z

7.5
∂Mz ∂My
Jx′ = − (7.9)
∂y ∂z
y, z

∂Mx ∂Mz
Jy′ = − (7.10)
∂z ∂x
∂M ∂M
Jz′ =
y x
− (7.11)
∂x ∂y

J⃗′ = ∇ × M
⃗ (7.12)

⃗
M

⃗
M ⃗
B

⃗ ∝B
M ⃗ (7.13)

J⃗0

⃗ = µ0 (J⃗0 + J⃗′ ) = µ0 (J⃗0 + ∇ × M

∇×B ⃗)

⃗ ∝B
M ⃗
142

7.3 ⃗
H

⃗
M

∇×B
⃗ = µ0 (J⃗0 + ∇ × M
⃗) (7.14)

⃗
B J⃗0

1 ⃗
∇×( B−M
⃗ ) = J⃗0 (7.15)
µ0

⃗
H

⃗ = 1B
H ⃗ −M
⃗ (7.16)
µ0

∇×H
⃗ = J⃗0 (7.17)

˛ ‹
⃗ · d⃗l =
H J⃗0 · dS
⃗ = I0 (7.18)
C ⃗
S

7.16 ⃗
H magnetic density ⃗
H

⃗
M ⃗
B ⃗
M ⃗
H

⃗ = χm H
M ⃗ (7.19)

χm ⃗
B ⃗
H

⃗ = µ0 (H
B ⃗ +M
⃗ ) = µ0 (1 + χm )H
⃗ (7.20)

µ r = 1 + χm

⃗ = µ 0 µr H
B ⃗ = µH
⃗ (7.21)

µ = µ0 µr 1
⃗
M ⃗
B χm < 0, µr < 1 ⃗
M ⃗
B
χm > 0, µr > 1 µr ≫ 1 µr
µr 103 µr 102
80% 20% 104 − 105
7.3 ⃗
H 143

⃗
H

⃗
M

7.1
R
µr > 1 z J⃗0
⃗ H,
B, ⃗ M
⃗ J⃗′
⃗′
K

:
r ⃗
H
r ⃗
H
˛ X
P
⃗ · d⃗l = I0
H I0 ⇒ H= (7.22)
L 2πr


 πr2 J0 = J0 r ,
2πr 2 r < R,
H(⃗
r) = (7.23)

 πR 2J 2
0
= 0R ,
2πr
J
2r r > R.



(µr − 1) J0 r ,
2 r < R,
M (⃗
r ) = χm H = (7.24)

0, r > R.


µ0 µr J0 r ,
2 r < R,
B(⃗
r ) = µH = (7.25)

µ0 J0 R2
2r , r > R.

µr



(µr − 1)J⃗0 , r < R,
J⃗′ (⃗
r) = ∇ × M
⃗ = χm ∇ × H
⃗ = χm J⃗0 = (7.26)

0, r > R.

⃗′=M
⃗ (r = R) × n J0 R
K ⃗ = −(µr − 1) ẑ (7.27)
2

˚ ˛
′
Isum = J⃗′ dS + ⃗ ′ dl = (µr − 1)J0 πR2 − (µr − 1) J0 R 2πR = 0
K
2
144

7.2
r toroidal
solenoid N I µr

O
⃗
H
P
I0
H= (7.28)
2πr

⃗
H ⃗
B

NI
H= (7.29)
2πr

µ0 µr N I
B = µ0 µr H = (7.30)
2πr

⃗
M
⃗
B ⃗
H

⃗ H,
B, ⃗ M
⃗
⃗ = χm H,
M ⃗ B⃗ = µH
⃗

B
B B
7.3 ⃗
H 145

M
B
B
B
B
B a b c
B H
H a 0
1 1 B 2
B I 2→3→4
M
4→5→6→1 1 1→2→3→4→5→6→1

a. b. c.

⃗
H
⃗ B
H, ⃗

⃗
⃗ = B −M
H ⃗, ⃗ = µ0 ( H
B ⃗ +M
⃗) (7.31)
µ0

∇×H
⃗ = J⃗0 (7.32)

∇·B
⃗ =0 (7.33)

7.31 7.33
∇·H
⃗ = −∇ · M
⃗ (7.34)

7.32 J⃗0 = 0 ⃗
H

∇×H
⃗ =0 (7.35)
∇·H
⃗ = −∇ · M
⃗ (7.36)

⃗
M
⃗
H ⃗
E
−∇ · M
⃗
146

7.3

⃗
M
⃗
H ⃗
B

7.36 ⃗
H

∇×H
⃗ =0 (7.37)

∇·H
⃗ = −∇ · M
⃗ =0 (7.38)

⃗
H ⃗
H ⃗
H

⃗ = µ0 (H
B ⃗ +M
⃗ ) = µ0 M
⃗ (7.39)

⃗ =0
B

⃗
M nI ⃗
B
⃗
B ⃗
M ⃗
H ⃗
M ⃗
H
⃗
H ⃗
M

B < nµ0 I B
µ0 M 7.39 H⃗ ⃗
M ⃗
B
B ̸= 0, M
⃗ ⃗ = 0, H
⃗ = B/µ
⃗ 0 ⃗
H ⃗
B
∇·M⃗ ⃗
H
∇·M⃗ ∇·M
⃗ ⃗
H

7.4

⃗
B ⃗
H

⃗
B 1
2 ⃗
B Bn1 , Bτ 1 , Bn2 , Bτ 3
∆S h
7.4 147

⃗
B
‹
0= ⃗ · dS
B ⃗ = Bn1 ∆S − Bn2 ∆S = (Bn1 − Bn2 )∆S (7.40)
S

∆S

Bn1 = Bn2 (7.41)

⃗
B ⃗
H ⃗ = µH
B ⃗

Hn1 µ2
= (7.42)
Hn2 µ1

⃗
H ⃗
H

˛
0= ⃗ ⃗l = Hτ 1 l − Hτ 2 l
Hd (7.43)
L

Hτ 1 = Hτ 2 (7.44)
148

Bτ 1 µ1
= (7.45)
Bτ 2 µ2

⃗
H
⃗
B
⃗
B ⃗
B

⃗
H

7.4

R1 R3 I
R1 µ1 R1 R3
µ2 µ3 R2
B⃗ ⃗
H K′

P r P ⃗
B
⃗
H
P ⃗
B ⃗
H
⃗
B ⃗
H

⃗
H



P 
0,
r < R1 r > R3 ,
I0 
H(⃗
r) = I
= 2πr (7.46)
 , R1 < r < R2 ,
2πr 


 I , R <r<R .
2πr 2 3
7.4 149

⃗
H R1 I ⃗
B ⃗
H




 0, r < R1 r > R3 ,

B(⃗
r ) = µH = µ2 I (7.47)
 2πr , R1 < r < R2 ,



 µ3 I ,
2πr R2 < r < R3 .




 0,
r < R1
 r > R3 ,
µ 
r ) = χm H = ( − 1)H = ( µµ2 − 1) 2πr
M (⃗ I
, R1 < r < R2 , (7.48)
µ0 
 0


( µ3 − 1) I , R < r < R .
µ0 2πr 2 3

R1 I z ẑ R1 ⃗′
K ⃗′
K
1 1
1 ⃗1
M K′
⃗
11 2 ⃗2
M ⃗′
K 21

1. 1 R1 ⃗ 11
n ⃗′ =M
K ⃗ 1 (R1 ) × n
⃗ 11 = 0
11

2. 2 R2 ⃗ 21
n ⃗′ =M
K ⃗ 21 = ( µµ20 − 1) 2πR
⃗ 2 (R1 ) × n I
ẑ
21 1

R1

⃗′ =K
K ⃗ ′ = ( µ2 − 1) I ẑ
⃗′ +K (7.49)
1 11 21
µ0 2πR1

R2

⃗′ =K
K ⃗′ +K⃗′ =M
⃗ 2 (R2 ) × n ⃗ 3 (R2 ) × n
⃗ 22 + M ⃗ 32
2 22 32
µ2 I µ3 I
= −( − 1) ẑ + ( − 1) ẑ
µ0 2πR2 µ0 2πR2
µ3 − µ2 I
= ẑ (7.50)
µ0 2πR2

R3

⃗′ =K
⃗′ =M
⃗ 3 (R3 ) × n µ3 I
K 3 33 ⃗ 33 = −( − 1) ẑ (7.51)
µ0 2πR3

7.5

R1 R2 I

⃗
B ⃗
H K′
⃗0
K
150

P r P ⃗
B
⃗
H
P ⃗
B ⃗
H

⃗
B r ⃗
B
B(⃗
r) ⃗
H

X
˛ X B(⃗
⃗ · d⃗l = r) 1
I= H πr (7.52)
L i
µi 2


P 
0, r < R1 r > R2 ,
2 I
B(⃗
r) = P = (7.53)
πr µ1i 
 P
2I
, R1 < r < R 2 .
1
πr i µi



0, r < R1 r > R2 ,
Hi (⃗
r ) = B(⃗
r )/µi = (7.54)
 P
 πrµ 2I 1 , R1 < r < R 2 .
i j µj

⃗
B ⃗
H R1 I



0, r < R1 r > R2 ,
µ
Mi (⃗
r) = ( − 1)Hi (⃗
r) = (7.55)
µ0  µ P
( µ0i − 1) πrµ 2I 1 , R1 < r < R2 .
i j µj

⃗ i (⃗
M r) ⃗′=M
K ⃗ ×
⃗ =0
n
7.4 151

r = R1
⃗ ′ (R1 ) = Mi (R1 )ẑ = ( µi − 1)
K
2I
P ẑ (7.56)
i 1
µ0 πR1 µi j µj

r = R2
⃗ ′ (R2 ) = −Mi (R2 )ẑ = −( µi − 1)
K
2I
P ẑ (7.57)
i 1
µ0 πR2 µi j µj

⃗
H r = R1 r = R2

⃗ 0,i (R1 ) = Hi (R1 )ẑ = 2I

K P 1 ẑ (7.58)
πR1 µi j µj

⃗ 0,i (R2 ) = −Hi (R2 )ẑ = 2I

K P 1 ẑ (7.59)
πR2 µi j µj

⃗ ′ (R1 ) + K
K ⃗ ′ (R1 ) + K
⃗ 0,1 (R1 ) = K ⃗ ′ (R1 ) + K
⃗ 0,2 (R1 ) = K ⃗ ′ (R4 ) + K
⃗ 0,3 (R1 ) = K ⃗ 0,4 (R1 ) (7.60)
1 2 3 4

⃗ ′ (R2 ) + K
K ⃗ ′ (R2 ) + K
⃗ 0,1 (R2 ) = K ⃗ ′ (R2 ) + K
⃗ 0,2 (R2 ) = K ⃗ ′ (R2 ) + K
⃗ 0,3 (R2 ) = K ⃗ 0,4 (R2 ) (7.61)
1 2 3 4

r ⃗
B

7.1:

7.2: ⃗
M ⃗
H ⃗
B

7.3: J⃗0 −z
µr J⃗′
⃗′
K

7.4: z=0 z>0 z<0

µ1 µ2 y = ±a
±x I ⃗
B
152
1820

1831

8.1

153
154

R
vE R ⃗
E b a
a b ⃗
E

I J⃗

U = IR (8.1)

⃗ = J⃗ρ
E (8.2)

R ρ

Ane

Ane = qU + qJρr L = qU + qIr (8.3)

r ρr I
I
U
ˆ −
U = U+ − U− = ⃗ · d⃗l
E
+

⃗
E ⃗ ne
E q

F⃗ ⃗ +E
= q(E ⃗ ne − J⃗ρr ) (8.4)

⃗ ne = J⃗ρr − E
E ⃗ (8.5)

1
electromotive force, emf
8.1 155

ˆ +
dAne ⃗ ne · d⃗l
E= = U + Ir = E (8.6)
dq −

⃗ ne
E
⃗
E

⃗
v q

v×B
F⃗Lorentz = q⃗ ⃗ (8.7)

⃗
⃗ ne = FLorentz = v
E ⃗ ×B
⃗ (8.8)
q

ˆ + ˆ +
E= ⃗ ne · d⃗l =
E ⃗ · d⃗l
v × B)
(⃗ (8.9)
− −

motion emf

8.1
R
⃗
B ω

:
156

ˆ + ˆ R ˆ R
⃗ · d⃗l = 1
E= v × B)
(⃗ v(r)Bdr = ωrBdr = ωBR2 (8.10)
− 0 0 2

8.2

19
1831

1820 · Michael Fara-

day 1791-1861 1831

1831 11

1.

2.
3.
8.1

1832
induced emf

8.1
L ⃗
S

dΦ
|E| = | | (8.11)
dt
8.2 157

magnetic flux
¨
Φ= ⃗ · dS
B ⃗ (8.12)
S

¨
dΦ d
E =− =− ⃗ · dS
B ⃗ (8.13)
dt dt S

L ⃗
S

⃗
S ⃗
S L
⃗
B
L ⃗1
S ⃗2
S S ⃗1 − S
⃗ =S ⃗2 ⃗
S
⃗2
S
‹ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨
0= ⃗ · dS
B ⃗= ⃗ · dS
B ⃗− ⃗ · dS
B ⃗ ⇒ ⃗ · dS
B ⃗= ⃗ · dS
B ⃗ (8.14)
⃗
S ⃗1
S ⃗2
S ⃗1
S ⃗2
S

X d X
E= Ei = − Φi (8.15)
i
dt i
P P
i Φi magnetic flux linkage Ψ= i Φi

induced electric field ⃗

E ⃗
E
⃗
E ⃗
E
⃗
E
8.13 L ⃗
E L
˛ ¨ ¨ ⃗
E= ⃗ · d⃗l = − d
E ⃗ · dS
B ⃗ =− ∂B
· dS
⃗ (8.16)
L dt S S ∂t

¨ ¨ ⃗
∂B
(∇ × E
⃗ ) · dS
⃗ =− · dS
⃗ (8.17)
S S ∂t

⃗
∂B
∇×E
⃗ =− (8.18)
∂t
158

⃗
E

∇·E
⃗ =0 (8.19)

⃗
E
⃗ ⃗
E − ∂∂tB ⃗
B µ0 J⃗
- -

˚ ⃗ r′ )
∂ B(⃗ ⃗−r
r ⃗′
⃗ (⃗
E r) = − × dV ′ (8.20)
V′ ∂t r−r
4π|⃗ ⃗ ′ |3

8.16 ⃗
E

⃗
E ⃗
E ⃗
E

⃗ =E
E ⃗ +E
⃗ (8.21)

⃗
E ⃗
E ⃗
E
⃗
E ⃗
E ⃗
E ⃗
E

8.18 8.19

ρ
∇×E
⃗ = 0, ∇·E
⃗ = (8.22)
ε0

⃗
∇×E⃗ = − ∂B (8.23)
∂t
ρ
∇·E⃗ = (8.24)
ε0

8.2

I = I0 sin ωt I0 ω I>0
d N
a h L
L

:
8.2 159

t L
¨ ˆ d+a
⃗ · dS
⃗ =N µ0 I N µ0 I0 l sin ωt d + a
Ψ(t) = N B ldx = ln (8.25)
S d 2πx 2π d

dΨ(t) N µ0 I0 lω cos ωt d + a
E =− =− ln (8.26)
dt 2π d

8.3
R
⃗
B P
⃗
E

:
P O r O r
L
˛
⃗ · d⃗l = 2πrE dΦ
E =− (8.27)
L dt



1 dΦ = − 2πr πr2 dt = − 2 dt ,
1 dB r dB
r < R,
E =− = (8.28)
2πr dt 
= − 1 πR2 dB = − R2 dB ,
2πr dt 2r dt r > R.

⃗
E dB
>0 ⃗
E
dt

8.4
Betatron
⃗
B B
B
⃗
E ⃗
E
B

mv = qB(R)R (8.29)

B(R) R ⃗
E
160

ˆ R
d(mv) ⃗ 1 dΦ 1 d
= qE =q =q 2πrB(r)dr (8.30)
dt 2πR dt 2πR dt 0

R
´R
0 2πrB(r)dr
B̄(R) = (8.31)
πR2

dR
dt =0 8.29 8.31 8.30

dB(R) qR dB̄(R)
qR = (8.32)
dt 2 dt

dB(R) 1 dB̄(R)
= (8.33)
dt 2 dt

B̄(R)
B(R) = (8.34)
2

R
R
B∝ 1
r

B
B B

1/4 ⃗
B B

O(1 T) 8.29 R
Bmax

pmax = qBmax R (8.35)

Bmax = 1 T 1m

pmax = 1.6 × 10−19 × 1 × 1 kg · m/s = 300 MeV/c (8.36)

8.3 161

1m

km
GeV
Synchrotron

LHC
LEP CEPC

8.3

1 2 I1 I2
1 2

¨ ¨ ˛
Ψ21 = N2 B1 · dS = N2
⃗ ⃗ (∇ × A1 ) · dS = N2
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 1 · d⃗
A r2
S2 S2 L2
˛ ˛  ˛ ˛
µ0 N1 I1 d⃗
r1 µ0 N2 N1 I1 d⃗r1 · d⃗
r2
= N2 · d⃗
r2 = (8.37)
L2 L1 4π|⃗r2 − r ⃗1 | 4π L2 L1 |⃗r2 − r⃗1 |

1 2
162

2
˛ ˛
dΨ21 µ0 N2 N1 r1 · d⃗
d⃗ r2 dI1
E21 = − =− (8.38)
dt 4π L2 L1 |⃗
r2 − r
⃗1 | dt

˛ ˛
µ0 N2 N1 r1 · d⃗
d⃗ r2
M21 = (8.39)
4π L2 L1 |⃗
r2 − r
⃗1 |

Ψ21 = M21 I1 (8.40)

dI1
E21 = −M21 (8.41)
dt

2 1
M21 1 2
mutual inductance

2 1

dI2
E12 = −M12 (8.42)
dt

˛ ˛
µ0 N1 N2 r2 · d⃗
d⃗ r1
M12 = (8.43)
4π L1 L2 |⃗
r2 − r
⃗1 |

M12 M21
2

M12 = M21 = M (8.44)

8.5

2
8.3 163

Φ = Bπr2 = µ0 nIπr2 (8.45)

Φ
M= = µ0 nπr2 (8.46)
I

8.6

Np Ns
Up
Us
Up Np
= (8.47)
Us Ns

Φ(t)

Ψp (t) = Np Φ(t), Ψs (t) = Ns Φ(t) (8.48)

r=0
8.6
dΨp (t) dΦ(t)
Up = |Ep | = | | = Np | | (8.49)
dt dt
dΨs (t) dΦ(t)
Us = |Es | = | | = Ns | | (8.50)
dt dt

Up Np
= (8.51)
Us Ns

Ψ = LI (8.52)
164

:
d(Ψ) dI
E =− −L (8.53)
dt dt
L self-inductance
inductance

8.7

B = µ0 nI (8.54)

Ψ = nlΦ = nlBS = nlµ0 nIπr2 (8.55)

1Ψ
L0 = = n2 µ0 πr2 (8.56)
l I

8.8

R1
R2

l
8.4 165

R1 R2 l
l R2 − R1

µ0 I
B(r) = (8.57)
2πr

ẑ l ⃗
B

¨ ˆ R2 ˆ R2
⃗ · dS
⃗= µ0 I µ0 Il R2
Φ= B B(r)ldr = ldr = ln (8.58)
S R1 R1 2πr 2π R1

Φ µ0 l R2
L= = ln (8.59)
I 2π R1

L µ0 R2
L0 = = ln (8.60)
l 2π R1

8.4

K 1 2 L R I
166

E = −L dI
dt I 0
I L R

dI
IR = E = −L (8.61)
dt

I(t) = I0 e− L t
R
(8.62)

K 1 2 L R
R
L

R
R
ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
1
I02 e− L t dt = LI02
2R
W = I 2 (t)Rdt = (8.63)
0 0 2

I0 L I

1
Wm = LI 2 (8.64)
2

dt

dI
dAm = EL Idt = −L Idt = −LIdI (8.65)
dt

ˆ ˆ 0
1
Wm = dAm = − LIdI = LI 2 (8.66)
I 2

⃗ ·E
we = 12 D ⃗

Φ LI

1
Wm = ΦI (8.67)
2

Φ
¨
1 ⃗ ·S
⃗
Wm = I B (8.68)
2 S
8.4 167

⃗ =∇×A
B ⃗
¨ ˛
1 ⃗=1 ⃗ · Id⃗l
Wm = I ⃗ ·S
(∇ × A) A (8.69)
2 S 2 L

Id⃗l J⃗dV
˚
1 ⃗ · J⃗dV
Wm = A (8.70)
2 V

∇×B
⃗ = µ0 J⃗
˚
1 ⃗ · (∇ × B)dV
⃗
Wm = A (8.71)
2µ0 V

∇ · (A
⃗ × B) ⃗ · (∇ × A)
⃗ =B ⃗ −A
⃗ · (∇ × B)
⃗
˚ ˚ 
1
Wm = B · (∇ × A)dV −
⃗ ⃗ ∇ · (A × B)dV
⃗ ⃗
2µ0 V V
˚ ‹ 
1 ⃗ · BdV
⃗
= B − ⃗ × Bd
A ⃗ S⃗ (8.72)
2µ0 V S

S V S
r→∞ r→∞ ⃗ ×B
A ⃗ 1/r2
˚
1
Wm = B 2 dV (8.73)
2µ0 V

B2
wm = (8.74)
2µ0

1⃗ ⃗
wm = B ·H (8.75)
2

8.75
⃗
B ⃗
H

8.66

1X 1 XX 1X
Wm = Li Ii2 + Mij Ii Ij = Ii Φi (8.76)
2 i 2 i j̸=i 2 i

1 P
We = 2 i qi U i
168

8.9

R1
R2

1 2Wm
Wm = LI 2 ⇒ L= (8.77)
2 I2

r > R2
r < R1 R1 < r < R2 1 2

µ0 Ir
B1 = (8.78)
2πR12

µ0 I
B2 = (8.79)
2πr

˚ ˆ R1  2
1 1 µ0 Ir µ0 I 2 l
Wm1 = B12 dV = 2πrl dr = (8.80)
2µ0 V 2µ0 0 2πR12 16π
˚ ˆ R2  2
1 1 µ0 I µ0 I 2 l µ0 I 2 l R2
Wm1 = B22 dV = 2πrl dr = = ln (8.81)
2µ0 V 2µ0 R1 2πr 16π 4π R1

Wm1 + Wm2 µ0 I 2 µ0 I 2 R2
Wm = = + ln (8.82)
l 16π 4π R1

2Wm µ0 µ0 R2
L= 2
= + ln (8.83)
I 8π 2π R1
8.4 169

8.8 1

8.1:
s
L
Z0 = (8.84)
C
L C
εr = 4 µr = 1 50 Ω
170
1784 1820 ·

1831

9.1

·
6.61

⃗  ⃗ 
∂E ∂E
∇×B
⃗ = µ 0 ε0 + µ0 J⃗0 = µ0 ε0 + J⃗0 (9.1)
∂t ∂t

⃗
∂E
∂t

171
172

⃗
J⃗0 ε0 ∂∂tE 1862
· · ames Clerk Maxwell 1831-1879
displacement
current density
⃗
∂E
J⃗d = ε0 (9.2)
∂t
9.1

⃗
⃗ = ∂ D + J⃗0
∇×H (9.3)
∂t

∂D⃗
J⃗d = (9.4)
∂t

J⃗0 I
displacement current :
¨ ¨ ⃗
∂D
Id = J⃗d · dS
⃗= · dS
⃗ (9.5)
S S ∂t

9.1

50 Hz I = I0 cos ωt

Iρ
E = Jρ = (9.6)
S

¨
Id = ⃗ = Sε0 ∂E = Sε0 ρ dI = ε0 ρωI0 cos(ωt + π )
J⃗d · dS (9.7)
S ∂t S dt 2

90

Id
= ε0 ρω (9.8)
I

ω = 2π × 50Hz ρ = 1.68 × 10−8 Ω · m

Id
= ε0 ρω = 8.85 × 10−12 × 1.68 × 10−8 × 2π × 50 = 4.7 × 10−17 (9.9)
I
9.1 173

9.3
˛  ⃗ 
⃗ · d⃗l = µ ∂ D + J⃗0
B (9.10)
∂t

9.2

I R
C C S1 S2 S1
S2 S2

1. S1 I01 Id1 S2 I02 Id2

I01 , I02 , Id1 , Id2 I01 + Id1 = I02 + Id2

2. P ⃗
B

:
174

1. S1

I01 = 0 (9.11)

S
S1
∂E ∂(ε0 SE)
Id1 = ε0 S = (9.12)
∂t ∂t
Q

σe Q
E= = ⇒ Q = ε0 SE (9.13)
ε0 Sε0

9.12
∂Q
Id1 = =I (9.14)
∂t
S2

Id2 = 0 (9.15)

S2 S2

I02 = I (9.16)

I01 + Id1 = I02 + Id2 = I (9.17)

S1 S2 C
⃗
H C
S1 S2

ΣI1 = Id1 = 0, ΣI2 = Id2 = I (9.18)

2.

Id1 I I
J⃗d = = = (9.19)
S S πR2

O P O r
O r C1
P

˛ ¨ 
 r22 µ0 I, r < R,
⃗ · d⃗l = 2πrB = µ0
B J⃗d · dS
⃗= R
(9.20)

µ0 I,
C1 r > R.
9.2 175



 µ0 Ir2 ,
2πR
r < R,
B= (9.21)

 µ0 I ,
2πr r > R.

9.2

⃗ = ρ
∇·E (9.22)
ε0
⃗
⃗ = − ∂B
∇×E (9.23)
∂t
∇·B =0
⃗ (9.24)
 ⃗
⃗ = µ0 J⃗0 + ε0 ∂ E
∇×B (9.25)
∂t

‹ ˚
⃗ · dS
⃗= ρ
E dV (9.26)
S V ε0
˛ ¨ ⃗
⃗ · d⃗l = − ∂B
E · dS
⃗ (9.27)
∂t
‹ L S

⃗ · dS
B ⃗ =0 (9.28)
S
˛ ¨  ⃗
⃗ · d⃗l = µ0 ∂E
B J⃗0 + ε0 · dS
⃗ (9.29)
L S ∂t

1.

Eτ 1 = Eτ 2 (9.30)
Dn1 − Dn2 = σ0 (9.31)
Hτ 1 − Hτ 2 = (J⃗0 × n
⃗ ) · τ̂ (9.32)
Bn1 = Bn2 (9.33)
176

2.

⃗ = εE
D ⃗ (9.34)
⃗ = µH
B ⃗ (9.35)
⃗ = ρJ⃗0
E (9.36)

19

9.3

v +x u
x t

x
u(x, t) = f (t − ) = f (α) (9.37)
v

u t x t + ∆t x + v∆t
u ∆t x x + v∆t

x + v∆t x
u(x + v∆t, t + ∆t) = f (t + ∆t − ) = f (t − ) = u(x, t) (9.38)
v v

9.37 u x t

∂2u 1 ∂2f
= (9.39)
∂x2 v 2 ∂α2
2
∂ u ∂2f
= (9.40)
∂t2 ∂α2

∂2u 1 ∂2u
− =0 (9.41)
∂x2 v 2 ∂t2

J⃗0 ρ
9.3 177

∇·E
⃗ =0 (9.42)
⃗
⃗ = − ∂B
∇×E (9.43)
∂t
∇·B
⃗ =0 (9.44)
⃗
∂E
∇×B
⃗ = µ 0 ε0 (9.45)
∂t

⃗
E ⃗
B 9.43 9.45

⃗ = −∇ × ∂ B = − ∂(∇ × B) = −µ0 ε0 ∂ E
⃗ ⃗ 2⃗
∇ × (∇ × E) (9.46)
∂t ∂t ∂t2

∇ × (∇ × E)
⃗ = ∇(∇ · E)
⃗ − ∇2 E
⃗ 1.1 ρ=0
∇·E
⃗ =0

∂2E⃗
∇ × (∇ × E)
⃗ = ∇(∇ · E)
⃗ − ∇2 E
⃗ = −∇2 E
⃗ = −µ0 ε0
2
(9.47)
∂t

⃗
∂2E
∇2 E
⃗ − µ 0 ε0 =0 (9.48)
∂t2
⃗
B

⃗
∂2B
∇2 B
⃗ − µ 0 ε0 =0 (9.49)
∂t2

9.41 J⃗0 = 0 ρ=0

⃗
E ⃗
B 9.48 9.49 ⃗
E ⃗
B

9.48 9.49

1
v=√ (9.50)
µ 0 ε0

ε0 µ0
ε0 µ0
c

1
c= √ ≈ 3 × 108 m/s (9.51)
µ0 ε 0
178

⃗
E ⃗
B
ωE ωB ⃗kE ⃗kB
⃗
E B⃗
⃗
r t ⃗
E ⃗
B

⃗ = E(⃗
E ⃗ 0 ei(⃗kE ·⃗r−ωE t+ϕE )
⃗ r , t) = E (9.52)
⃗ = B(⃗
⃗ r , t) = B
⃗ 0e i(⃗kB ·⃗
r −ωB t+ϕB )
B (9.53)

⃗0
E ⃗0
B ϕE ϕB ⃗
E ⃗
B

⃗
E

⃗
⃗ 0 ei(kE ·⃗r−ωE t+ϕE ) = i⃗kE · E
⃗ = i⃗kE · E
∇·E ⃗ (9.54)
∇×E ⃗ 0 ei(⃗kE ·⃗r−ωE t+ϕE ) = i⃗kE × E
⃗ = i⃗kE × E ⃗ (9.55)
⃗
∂E ⃗ 0 ei(⃗kE ·⃗r−ωE t+ϕE ) = −iωE E
= −iωE E ⃗ (9.56)
∂t

⃗ = i⃗kB · B
∇·B ⃗ (9.57)
⃗ = i⃗kB × B
∇×B ⃗ (9.58)
⃗
∂B
= −iωB B
⃗ (9.59)
∂t

⃗
E ⃗
B ωE ωB
9.43

⃗
∂B
∇×E
⃗ =− ⇒ i⃗kE × E
⃗ = iωB B
⃗ (9.60)
∂t

⃗ 0 ei(⃗kE ·⃗r−ωE t+ϕE ) = iωB B

i⃗kE × E ⃗ 0 ei(⃗kB ·⃗r−ωB t+ϕB ) (9.61)

ωE = ωB = ω (9.62)

⃗
E ⃗
B ⃗kE ⃗kB ⃗ = i⃗kE · E
∇·E ⃗
∇·E
⃗ =0
⃗kE · E
⃗ =0 (9.63)

⃗kE ⃗
E 9.60 ⃗
E ⃗
B ⃗
B ⃗kE
⃗kE ⃗ ⃗kB
E ⃗
B

∇·B
⃗ =0 ⇒ i⃗kB · B
⃗ =0 (9.64)
9.3 179

⃗
⃗ = µ 0 ε0 ∂ E
∇×B ⇒ i⃗kB × B
⃗ = −iµ0 ε0 ωE E
⃗ (9.65)
∂t
⃗kB E ⃗ ⃗kB ⃗
E
⃗
B ⃗kE ⃗kB ⃗
E ⃗kB ⃗kE ⃗kB
⃗
E B⃗

ω ω
c = vE = = vB = (9.66)
kE kB

⃗kE ⃗kB

⃗k = ⃗kE = ⃗kB (9.67)

⃗
E ⃗
B ϕE ϕB ⃗kE = ⃗kB = ⃗k
ωE = ωB = ω 9.61

⃗ 0 ei(⃗k·⃗r−ωt+ϕE ) = ω B
⃗k × E ⃗ 0 ei(⃗k·⃗r−ωt+ϕB ) (9.68)

⃗ 0 ei(ϕE −ϕB ) = ω B
⃗k × E ⃗0 (9.69)

ϕE = ϕB (9.70)

⃗
E ⃗
B ⃗
E ⃗
B

⃗
E ⃗
B

⃗ = E(⃗
E ⃗ 0 ei(⃗k·⃗r−ωt+ϕ)
⃗ r , t) = E (9.71)
⃗ = B(⃗
B ⃗ 0 ei(⃗k·⃗r−ωt+ϕ)
⃗ r , t) = B (9.72)

• ⃗
E ⃗
B
⃗
• E ⃗
B ⃗k

⃗
• E ⃗
B

ω 1
v= =√ =c (9.73)
k µ 0 ε0

1 c
v=√ = (9.74)
µε n
180

√
n= µ r εr

⃗
• E ⃗
B 9.69

E ω 1
= =v= √ (9.75)
B k µε

B2
εE 2 = (9.76)
µ

⃗
E ⃗
B

9.4

1⃗ ⃗ 1
we = D · E = εE 2 (9.77)
2 2
1⃗ ⃗ 1 B2
wm = B · H = (9.78)
2 2 µ

1⃗ ⃗ 1⃗ ⃗ 1 1 B2
w = we + w m = D · E + B · H = εE 2 + (9.79)
2 2 2 2 µ

S V
V
9.4 181

1. V
˚
∂w
dV (9.80)
V ∂t

2. V
˚ ˚ ˚ ˚
nF⃗ · v
⃗ dV = ⃗ ·v
nq E ⃗ dV = ⃗ ·v
ρE ⃗ dV = ⃗ · J⃗dV
E (9.81)
V V V V

3. S ⃗
S

S ‹ ˚
⃗ · d⃗σ =
S ∇ · SdV
⃗ (9.82)
S V

˚ ˚ ˚
∂w
− dV = ⃗ · J⃗dV +
E ∇ · SdV
⃗ (9.83)
V ∂t V V

∂w
∇·S
⃗+ = −E
⃗ · J⃗ (9.84)
∂t

Poynting’s theorem ⃗
S

⃗
S 9.79

∂w ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ · ∂E + B · ∂B
= εE (9.85)
∂t ∂t µ ∂t

9.84 ⃗ · J⃗
E

⃗
⃗ · J⃗ = E
E ⃗ − ε ∂E )
⃗ · (∇ × H (9.86)
∂t
=E⃗ ·∇×H ⃗ − εE⃗ · ∂E (9.87)
∂t

∇ · (E
⃗ × H) ⃗ · (∇ × E)
⃗ =H ⃗ −E
⃗ · (∇ × H)
⃗

⃗ · J⃗ = H
E ⃗ · (∇ × E)
⃗ − ∇ · (E
⃗ × H)
⃗ − εE⃗ · ∂E (9.88)
∂t
∂ ⃗
B ∂E
= −H⃗ · − ∇ · (E
⃗ × H)
⃗ − εE⃗· (9.89)
∂t ∂t

9.85
⃗ · J⃗ = − ∂w − ∇ · (E
E ⃗ × H)
⃗ (9.90)
∂t
182

9.84

⃗ = − ∂w − E
∇·S ⃗ · J⃗ = − ∂w + ∂w + ∇ · (E
⃗ × H)
⃗ = ∇ · (E
⃗ × H)
⃗ (9.91)
∂t ∂t ∂t

S ⃗ ×H
⃗ =E ⃗ (9.92)

⃗
S 9.91

9.92
⃗
E ⃗
B ⃗
S

• ⃗
E ⃗
B
⃗
S

• ⃗
E ⃗
B ⃗
S

• ⃗
E ⃗
B
⃗
S

• ⃗
E ⃗
B
⃗
S

⃗k
⃗
E ⃗
B S ⃗ ×H
⃗ =E ⃗
⃗
E ⃗
B 9.75 ⃗
S

E2
S = EH = = εvE 2 (9.93)
vµ

⃗
E ⃗
B
I

1
I =< S >=< εvE 2 >= εvE02 (9.94)
2

E0 ⃗
E
9.4 183

⃗
E ⃗
B 9.76

B2
w = we + wm = 2we = 2wm = εE 2 = (9.95)
µ

9.75

EH
w = εE 2 = εvEB = εµvEH = (9.96)
v

⃗ = w⃗
S v (9.97)

⃗
E ⃗
E
⃗
E
⃗
E v×B
F⃗ = q⃗ ⃗
⃗k ⃗k
⃗k ⃗k

E
p= (9.98)
c
⃗g

w EH
g= = 2 (9.99)
c c

⃗g ⃗k ⃗
S

⃗ ×H
E ⃗ ⃗
S
⃗g = = ⃗ ×B
=D ⃗ (9.100)
c2 c2
184

d⃗
p
F⃗ = (9.101)
dt

∆S ∆t

∆p = 2ḡ∆Sc∆t (9.102)

ḡ ∆S

∆p
F = = 2ḡ∆Sc (9.103)
∆t

F 2S̄ 2I
pr = = 2ḡc = = (9.104)
∆S c c

9.3

r ρ 3g/cm3
r

R M

GM m 4GM ρπr3
Fg = = (9.105)
R2 3R2

P0 = 3.8 × 102 6W

Sπr2 P0 πr2
Fr = pr πr2 = = (9.106)
c 4πR2 c

Fg 16GM ρπcr
= (9.107)
Fr 3P0

Fg 3P0
=1 ⇒ r= (9.108)
Fr 16GM ρπc
9.5 185

3 × 3.8 × 1026
r= m = 0.19µm (9.109)
16 × 6.674 × 10−11 × 2 × 1030 × 3 × 103 × π × 3 × 108

0.38µm

9.5

1865
· · Heinrich Rudolf Hertz 1857 1894 1886
1889 1893
1

xy AA′

0.75cm AA′

A A′ MHz
B yz
x a, a′ , b, b′ AA′
b b′
AA′ a a′

1
Hertz, H., 1893. Electric waves: being researches on the propagation of electric action with finite velocity
through space. Dover Publications.
186

• ⃗
E ⃗
B
⃗
r

• ⃗
S r 1/r2
S ⃗ ×B
⃗ =E ⃗

•
9.5 187

q F v
F′ r̂ ′ /r′2
F v
x

γqx
Ex = (9.110)
4πε0 + y 2 + z 2 ]3/2
[(γx)2
γqy
Ey = (9.111)
4πε0 [(γx)2 + y 2 + z 2 ]3/2
γqz
Ez = (9.112)
4πε0 [(γx) + y 2 + z 2 ]3/2
2

γ γ=√ 1
1−v 2 /c2

⃗ = γq⃗
r
E (9.113)
4πε0 [(γx)2 + y 2 + z 2 ]3/2

t=0
x=0 P0 v0 t=τ
1
P1 x= 2 v0 τ
t=T ≫τ
P0 cT t=T
v0
P2 x = v0 T
P1 c(T − τ ) t=T
P1
188

P
P P P

Eθ

Eθ v0 T sin θ
= (9.114)
Er cτ
v0 T sin θ qv0 T sin θ
⇒Eθ = Er = (9.115)
cτ 4πε0 cτ r2
v0
r = cT, a = τ

qa sin θ
Eθ = (9.116)
4πε0 c2 r

1/r

x = x0 cos(ωt) (9.117)

a = −ω 2 x0 cos(ωt) (9.118)

9.116

T = 2π/ω
9.5 189

t=0

⃗=p
p ⃗ 0 cos(ωt) (9.119)

t = 0
0 < t < T /4

t = T /4

t > T /4

t=T

9.116
r ≫ l, r ≫ λ t − r/c

⃗ = − p0 ω sin θ cos(ω(t − r/c)) θ̂

2
E (9.120)
4πε0 c2 r
θ

ϕ̂ ⃗
E ⃗
B 9.75

⃗ = Eθ ϕ̂ = − p0 ω sin θ cos(ω(t − r/c)) ϕ̂

2
B (9.121)
c 4πε0 c3 r

⃗
r ⃗
r
190

9.120 9.121

2  2
⃗= 1E ⃗ = 1 p0 ω sin θ
⃗ ×B µ0 p20 ω 4 sin2 θ
S cos2 (ω(t − r/c))r̂ = cos2 (ω(t − r/c))r̂ (9.122)
µ0 µ0 c 4πε0 c2 r 16π 2 c r2

θ P O z

⃗ >= µ0 p20 ω 4 sin2 θ

<S r̂ (9.123)
32π 2 c r2

‹ ˆ 2π ˆ π
⃗ > ·d⃗σ = µ0 p20 ω 4 sin2 θ 2 µ0 p20 ω 4
< P >= <S r sin θdθdϕ = (9.124)
0 0 32π 2 c r2 12πc

• θ

X
X
9.6 191

⃗
E ⃗k
⃗
E

L
λ (2 −
I(z) = I0 sin( 2π L
λ/4 L = λ/2
|z|))
2.4GHz 12.5cm
6.25cm

L = λ/4
λ/2

9.6

9.3 J⃗0 ρ

J⃗0 = σ E
⃗ (9.125)
192

σ ρ J⃗0 ρ

∇·E
⃗ =0 (9.126)
⃗
⃗ = − ∂B
∇×E (9.127)
∂t
∇·B =0
⃗ (9.128)
⃗
∂E ⃗
∂E
∇×B
⃗ = µε + µJ⃗0 = µε ⃗
+ µσ E (9.129)
∂t ∂t

9.127 9.129 ∇ × (∇ × E)
⃗ = ∇(∇ · E)
⃗ − ∇2 E
⃗ = −∇2 E
⃗

⃗ = − ∂(∇ × B) = −µε ∂ E − µσ ∂ E
⃗ 2⃗ ⃗
−∇2 E
⃗ = ∇ × (∇ × E) (9.130)
∂t ∂t2 ∂t

∂2E⃗ ⃗
∂E
∇2 E
⃗ = µε
2
+ µσ (9.131)
∂t ∂t

⃗
∂2B ⃗
∂B
∇2 B
⃗ = µε + µσ (9.132)
∂t2 ∂t

⃗
E ⃗
B

⃗ = E(⃗
E ⃗ 0 ei(⃗kE ·⃗r−ωE t+ϕE )
⃗ r , t) = E (9.133)
⃗ = B(⃗
⃗ r , t) = B
⃗ 0e i(⃗kB ·⃗
r −ωB t+ϕB )
B (9.134)

9.3 ⃗kE = ⃗kB = ⃗k ωE = ωB = ω ϕE

ϕB 9.129

i⃗k × B
⃗ = −iωµεE
⃗ + µεE
⃗ (9.135)

i⃗k × B
⃗ + iωµεE
⃗ = µεE
⃗ (9.136)

⃗
E ⃗
B

i⃗k × B
⃗ 0 + iωµεE
⃗ 0 = µεE
⃗0 (9.137)

⃗
E ⃗
B

⃗ = E(⃗
E ⃗ 0 ei(⃗k·⃗r−ωt+ϕE )
⃗ r , t) = E (9.138)
⃗ = B(⃗
⃗ r , t) = B
⃗ 0e i(⃗k·⃗
r −ωt+ϕB )
B (9.139)
9.6 193

9.131

−k 2 E
⃗ = −µεω 2 E
⃗ − iωµσ E
⃗ (9.140)

k 2 = µεω 2 + iωµσ (9.141)

k k

k = kr + iki (9.142)

r r 1/2
εµ σ 2
kr = ω 1+( ) +1 (9.143)
2 εω
r r 1/2
εµ σ 2
ki = ω 1+( ) −1 (9.144)
2 εω

σ ≫ εω
r
µσω
kr = ki = (9.145)
2

⃗k

⃗ = E(⃗
E ⃗ 0 e−⃗ki ·⃗r ei(⃗kr ·⃗r−ωt+ϕE )
⃗ r , t) = E (9.146)
⃗ = B(⃗
B ⃗ 0 e−⃗ki ·⃗r ei(⃗kr ·⃗r−ωt+ϕB )
⃗ r , t) = B (9.147)

⃗
E ⃗
B 9.127

k k ⃗ ⃗
i⃗k × E
⃗ = iω B
⃗ ⇒ B= E = E0 e−ki ·⃗r ei(kr ·⃗r−ωt+ϕE ) (9.148)
ω ω

⃗
B ⃗
E k 9.145 45◦

⃗ = E(⃗
E ⃗ 0 e−⃗ki ·⃗r ei(⃗kr ·⃗r−ωt+ϕE )
⃗ r , t) = E (9.149)
⃗
⃗ r , t) = k × E0 e−⃗ki ·⃗r ei(⃗kr ·⃗r−ωt+ϕB )
⃗
⃗ = B(⃗
B (9.150)
ω

⃗
e−ki ·⃗r (9.151)
194

1
δ= (9.152)
ki

1/e
s
1 2
δ= = (9.153)
ki µσω

1GHz
s s
2 2
δ= = ≈ 5µm (9.154)
µσω (4π × 10−7 ) × (5.8 × 107 ) × (1 × 109 )

cm

9.4

ẑ
9.7 195

S ⃗ ×H
⃗ =E ⃗
ẑ

9.7

Eτ 1 = Eτ 2 (9.155)
Dn1 = Dn2 (9.156)
Hτ 1 = Hτ 2 (9.157)
Bn1 = Bn2 (9.158)

xy 1 θ
⃗k, ⃗kr , ⃗kt
⃗ r0 , E
]vE0 , E ⃗ t0
196

E ⃗ 0 ei(⃗k·⃗r−ωt)
⃗ =E (9.159)
E ⃗ r0 ei(⃗kr ·⃗r−ωr t)
⃗r = E (9.160)
E ⃗ t0 ei(⃗kt ·⃗r−ωt t)
⃗t = E (9.161)

⃗ = ⃗k×E⃗
B ω

B⃗ = 1 ⃗k × E⃗ 0 ei(⃗k·⃗r−ωt) (9.162)
ω
⃗ r = 1 ⃗k × E
B ⃗ r0 ei(⃗kr ·⃗r−ωr t) (9.163)
ωr
⃗ t = 1 ⃗k × E
B ⃗ t0 ei(⃗kt ·⃗r−ωt t) (9.164)
ωt

Eτ 1 = Eτ 2 z=0

⃗τ1
E ⃗ r,τ 1
+E ⃗ t,τ 1
=E (9.165)
z=0 z=0 z=0

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
E0τ ei(k·⃗r−ωt) + Er0τ ei(kr ·⃗r−ωr t) = Et0τ ei(kt ·⃗r−ωt t) (9.166)
z=0 z=0 z=0

x, y t

E0τ + Er0τ = Et0τ (9.167)

z=0 z=0 z=0

⃗k · r
⃗ − ωt = ⃗kr · r
⃗ − ωr t = ⃗kt · r
⃗ − ωt t (9.168)
z=0 z=0 z=0

kx x + ky y − ωt = krx x + kry y − ωr t = ktx x + kty y − ωt t (9.169)

9.7 197

x, y, t

ω = ωr = ωt (9.170)
kx = krx = ktx (9.171)
ky = kry = kty (9.172)

xz ky = 0
9.172
kry = kty = ky = 0 (9.173)

xz

ω ωr ω
v1 = = = ⇒ k = kr (9.174)
k kr kr
9.171
sin θ kr
krx = kx ⇒ kr sin θr = k sin θ ⇒ = =1 (9.175)
sin θr k

9.171

sin θ kt
ktx = kx ⇒ kt sin θt = k sin θ ⇒ = (9.176)
sin θt k

√
ω ω kt v1 µ 2 ε2
k= , kt = ⇒ = =√ (9.177)
v1 v2 k v2 µ 1 ε1

√
sin θ v1 µ2 ε 2 n2
= =√ = (9.178)
sin θt v2 µ1 ε 1 n1

• ⃗
E xz
198

• ⃗
E xz

⃗
E

⃗
E ⃗
E

Eτ 1 = Eτ 2 ⇒ E0 + Er0 = Et0 (9.179)

       
B0 Br0 Bt0 E0 Er0 Et0
Hτ 1 = Hτ 2 ⇒ + = ⇒ + = (9.180)
µ1 µ1 τ µ2 τ v 1 µ1 v 1 µ1 τ v 2 µ2 τ

r r
ε1 ε2
(E0 cos θ − Er0 cos θ) = Et0 cos θt (9.181)
µ1 µ2
9.179 9.181
q q
Er0
ε1
ε2
cos θ −
µ2 cos θt
µ1
= qε q
ε2
(9.182)
E0
µ1 cos θ + µ2 cos θt
1

q
ε1
Et0 µ1 cos θ 2
= qε q
ε2
(9.183)
E0 cos θ + µ2 cos θt
1
µ1

µ1 ≈ µ1 ≈ µ 0
q
Er0 cos θ −
ε2
ε1 cos θt cos θ − sin θ
cos θt sin(θ − θt )
sin θt
= q = sin θ
=− (9.184)
E0 cos θ + εε21 cos θt cos θ + sin θt cos θt sin(θ + θt )
Et0 2 cos θ 2 cos θ sin θt
= q = (9.185)
E0 ε2
cos θ + ε1 cos θt sin(θ + θt )

⃗
E ⃗
E
9.7 199

E⊥r0 sin(θ − θt )
=− (9.186)
E⊥0 sin(θ + θt )
E⊥t0 2 cos θ sin θt
= (9.187)
E⊥0 sin(θ + θt )

⃗
E ⃗
B

Eτ 1 = Eτ 2 ⇒ E0 cos θ − Er0 cos θ = Et0 cos θt (9.188)

r r
ε1 ε2
Hτ 1 = Hτ 2 ⇒ (E0 + Er0 ) = Et0 (9.189)
µ1 µ2

√ √
Er0 ε2 µ1 cos θ − ε1 µ2 cos θt
=√ √ (9.190)
E0 ε2 µ1 cos θ + ε1 µ2 cos θt
√
Et0 2 ε1 µ2 cos θ
=√ √ (9.191)
E0 ε2 µ1 cos θ + ε1 µ2 cos θt

µ1 ≈ µ1 ≈ µ 0
q
ε1 cos θ − cos θt
ε2
Er0
sin θ
sin θt cos θ − cos θt tan(θ − θt )
=q = sin θ
= (9.192)
E0 ε2
cos θ + cos θ t sin θt cos θ + cos θt tan(θ + θt )
ε1
Et0 2 cos θ 2 cos θ 2 cos θ sin θt
=q = sin θ
= (9.193)
E0 ε2
cos θ + cos θ t sin θt cos θ + cos θt sin θ cos θ + sin θt cos θt
ε1

⃗
E ⃗
E
200

E∥r0 tan(θ − θt )
= (9.194)
E∥0 tan(θ + θt )
E∥t0 2 cos θ sin θt
= (9.195)
E∥0 sin θ cos θ + sin θt cos θt

9.186 9.187 9.194 9.195

• ⃗
E 9.186
π

• 9.194 θ + θt = π/2 E∥r0 = 0

θ + θt = π/2 θB

sin θB sin θB 1
= = n21 ⇒ tan θB = (9.196)
sin θt sin(π/2 − θB ) n21

⃗
E
⃗
E

0 9.182 9.183 9.190 9.191

E⊥r0 1−β
= (9.197)
E⊥0 1+β
E⊥t0 2
= (9.198)
E⊥0 1+β
E∥r0 β−1
= (9.199)
E∥0 1+β
E∥t0 2
= (9.200)
E∥0 1+β

r p
ε2 µ 1 µ1 /ε1
β= =p (9.201)
ε1 µ 2 µ2 /ε2

r
µ
Z= (9.202)
ε
r r
µ1 µ2 Z1
Z1 = , Z2 = , β= (9.203)
ε1 ε2 Z2
9.7 201

E⊥r0 Z2 − Z1
= (9.204)
E⊥0 Z1 + Z2
E⊥t0 2Z2
= (9.205)
E⊥0 Z1 + Z2
E∥r0 Z1 − Z2
= (9.206)
E∥0 Z1 + Z2
E∥t0 2Z2
= (9.207)
E∥0 Z1 + Z2

9.202 Z
Z1 = Z2

E⊥r0 = 0, E⊥t0 = E⊥0 , E∥r0 = 0, E∥t0 = E∥0 (9.208)

Z1 = Z2

9.202
q
µ0
Z= ε0 = 377Ω
R=0
s
L
Z0 = (9.209)
C

L C

1
r
ε2 n2
β= = (9.210)
ε1 n1

E⊥r0 n1 − n2
= (9.211)
E⊥0 n1 + n2
E⊥t0 2n1
= (9.212)
E⊥0 n1 + n2
E∥r0 n2 − n1
= (9.213)
E∥0 n1 + n2
E∥t0 2n1
= (9.214)
E∥0 n1 + n2
202

 2
Ir E2 n1 − n 2
R= = r0 = (9.215)
I E02 n1 + n2
 2
It E2 2n1 n2
T = = t02 = (9.216)
I E0 n1 + n2
1.5:

• Φ r̂ ∇Φ

dΦ ∂Φ
|∇Φ| = =
|d⃗
r| ∂r

∇Φ = r̂ ∂Φ
∂r

• Φ ϕ̂ ∇Φ

dΦ ∂Φ
|∇Φ| = =
|d⃗
r| r∂ϕ

∇Φ = ϕ̂ r∂ϕ
∂Φ

• Φ ẑ ∇Φ

dΦ ∂Φ
|∇Φ| = =
|d⃗
r| ∂z

∇Φ = ẑ ∂Φ
∂z

∇Φ = r̂ ∂Φ ∂Φ ∂Φ
∂r + ϕ̂ r∂ϕ + ẑ ∂z ∇

∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇ = r̂ + ϕ̂ + ẑ
∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

1.6: ∇ · F⃗
   
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇ · F⃗ = r̂ + ϕ̂ + ẑ · Fr r̂ + Fϕ ϕ̂ + Fz ẑ
∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z
     
∂(Fr r̂ + Fϕ ϕ̂ + Fz ẑ) 1 ∂(Fr r̂ + Fϕ ϕ̂ + Fz ẑ) ∂(Fr r̂ + Fϕ ϕ̂ + Fz ẑ)
= r̂ · + ϕ̂ · + ẑ ·
∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

203
204

∂ r̂
∂r = 0, ∂∂rϕ̂ = 0, ∂∂rẑ = 0, ∂ϕ
∂ r̂
= ϕ̂, ∂∂ϕϕ̂ = 0, ∂ϕ
∂ ẑ
= 0, ∂∂zr̂ = 0, ∂∂zϕ̂ = 0, ∂∂zẑ = 0

     
∂(Fr r̂) 1 ∂(Fr r̂ + Fϕ ϕ̂) ∂(Fz ẑ)
∇ · F⃗ = r̂ · + ϕ̂ · + ẑ ·
∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z
     
r̂∂Fr + Fr ∂ r̂ 1 Fr ∂ r̂ + r̂∂Fr + ϕ̂∂Fϕ + Fϕ ∂ ϕ̂ Fz ∂ ẑ + ẑ∂Fz
= r̂ · + ϕ̂ · + ẑ ·
∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z
     
r̂∂Fr 1 Fr ∂ r̂ + ϕ̂∂Fϕ ẑ∂Fz
= r̂ · + ϕ̂ · + ẑ ·
∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z
∂Fr 1 ∂Fϕ ∂Fz
= + (Fr + )+
∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂(rFr ) 1 ∂Fϕ ∂Fz
= + +
r ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z

−r̂
1.10: ∇U = r2
, ∇ × (∇U ) = 0

1.11: ∇ · F⃗ = 0, ∇ × F⃗ = 0

1.12: ∇ · F⃗ = 0, ∇ × F⃗ = 2ẑ

2.1: 2.2 b

2k 2 z 2 e4
∆E = (9.217)
m0 b2 v 2

dx b b + db

dNe = N ZdV = N Z(2πbdbdx) = 2πN Zbdbdx (9.218)

4πN Zk 2 z 2 e4
(dE)b∼b+db = dNe · ∆E = dbdx (9.219)
m0 v 2 b

dx
ˆ bmax  
4πN Zk 2 z 2 e4 4πN Zk 2 z 2 e4 bmax
dE = dbdx = dx ln (9.220)
bmin m0 v 2 b m0 v 2 bmin

bmax bmin

• bmin 2m0 v 2 9.217

2k 2 z 2 e4 kze2
= 2m0 v 2
⇒ bmin = (9.221)
m0 b2min v 2 m0 v 2
9.7 205

• bmax I
 1/2
2k 2 z 2 e4 kze2 2
2 2
= I ⇒ bmax = (9.222)
m0 bmax v v m0 I

9.220
 
4πN Zk 2 z 2 e4 bmax
dE = 2
dx ln
m0 v bmin
 1/2
4πN Zk 2 z 2 e4 2m0 v 2
= dx ln (9.223)
m0 v 2 I

   1/2
dE 4πN Zk 2 z 2 e4 2m0 v 2
=− ln (9.224)
dx ion m0 v 2 I

⃗ 6ql2
2.3: E(x) = 4πε0 x4

σ
2.4: E= ε0 E=0

2.5: U = λ
2πε0 ln rr0 r0

2.6: √q
2ε0

2.7:

1. U (x, y, z) = √Q − √ q
4πε0 x2 +y 2 +z 2 4πε0 x2 +(y−d)2 +z 2

d d
2. (0, 1−(q/Q)2) Q/q−q/Q

⃗ r) = ρe R 2 ρe r
2.8: r>R E(⃗ 2ε0 r r̂ r≤R ⃗ r) =
E(⃗ − 2ε0 r̂

λe 8
2.9: x=0 x > l/2 E(x) = 4πε0 4x−l2 /x 0 < x < l/2
E(x) = λe 8
4πε0 2l−8x2 x<0 E(x) = −E(−x)

3.1:

1) A q B −q B Q+q
 
1 q −q Q+q
2) UA = 4πε0 R1 + R2 + R3

3) A q B −q B 0
206

4) A q′ B −q ′ B −q + q ′

q′ −q ′ −q + q ′
0= + + (9.225)
R1 R2 R3

4.1:
⃗ = 3 ⃗
E E0
2 + εr

6.3: 

 µ0 Rωσ r sin θ ϕ̂,
3 r ≤ R,
⃗ r) =
A(⃗

 µ0 R 4 ωσ
sin θ
3 r2
ϕ̂, r > R.

⃗ = 2 µ0 σR⃗
B ω
3

7.2:
⃗ ⃗
⃗ = −M ,
H ⃗ = 2µ0 M
B
3 3

8.1:
60 R2 R2
Z0 = √ ln ⇒ = e5/3 = 5.29
εr R1 R1