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CH 1

Ce document est un manuel sur la conception et l'analyse des amplificateurs et oscillateurs à transistors micro-ondes, utilisant des techniques de paramètres de diffusion. Il couvre des concepts fondamentaux tels que les réseaux à deux ports, les diagrammes de Smith, et les méthodes de conception pour les amplificateurs à faible bruit et à haute puissance. La seconde édition inclut des matériaux supplémentaires, des exemples et des problèmes pour renforcer l'apprentissage.

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7 vues50 pages

CH 1

Ce document est un manuel sur la conception et l'analyse des amplificateurs et oscillateurs à transistors micro-ondes, utilisant des techniques de paramètres de diffusion. Il couvre des concepts fondamentaux tels que les réseaux à deux ports, les diagrammes de Smith, et les méthodes de conception pour les amplificateurs à faible bruit et à haute puissance. La seconde édition inclut des matériaux supplémentaires, des exemples et des problèmes pour renforcer l'apprentissage.

Transféré par

kshen2004
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
Nous prenons très au sérieux les droits relatifs au contenu. Si vous pensez qu’il s’agit de votre contenu, signalez une atteinte au droit d’auteur ici.
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Library of Congres Cataloging Publication Dasz Gonzales Guilermo lcronsretramisor ampien canals and design Guilermo onaier — tad Intl: biographies references and inden Kawesasens IE Tamisor amples, 2, Microwave amplifiers 1 Tite reW13G9 198 eB 3s 6.918 cir Aquisions Eton. Bie Svendsen Production Editor: Rose Kernan Cover Designer: Wendy Alling dy Buyer Julia Mechan Editorial Assistant Kathryn E. Cassino (© 1997, 1984 by Prentice-Hall, nc Simon de Schuster/A Viacom Company Upper Sadale River, NJ 7458 llrightsreserved. No part ofthis book may be reproduced in any form or by any mesns, Without permission in writing rom the publisher ‘The author and publisher of this book have used ther best efforts in preparing tis book, ‘These efforts include the development, esearch and testing ofthe theories and programs to determine their effectiveness The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for ‘incidental or consequential damages with, or arsing out of, the furnishing, performance, oF tse ofthese programs Printed in the United States of America wos76s4 32 ISBN 0-13-254335-4 Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pi: Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada Ine, Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana,S.A., Merico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of lapan, Inc, Tokyo ‘Simon & Schuster Asia Pte Ltd, Singapore 1 CONTENTS PREFACE vi REPRESENTATIONS OF TWO-PORT NETWORKS 1 LI Introduetion, 1 12 The Impedance, Admittance, Hybrid, and ABCD Matrices, 1 13° Transmission-Line Concepts, 4 The Lossy Tansnision Line, 20 14 The Scattering Matrix and the Chain Scattering Matrix, 22 15 Shifting Reference Planes, 26 16 Properties of Scattering Parameters, 28 entering Marri oft-PortNeworks, #2 17 Power Waves and Generalized Scattering Parameters, 45 Generalized Scatering Maris forn-Port Networks. 52 18 Two-Port Network Parameters Conversions, 60 19 Measurement of Scattering Parameters, 61 110 Scattering Parameters of Transistors, 66 LIL Characteristics of Microwave Transistors, 71 Bipolar Transistors, 71 w Contents Field Effect Transistors, 79 Problems, 86 2 MATCHING NETWORKS AND SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS 92 24 Introduction, 92 22 The Smith Chart, 93 23. The Normalized Impedance and Admittance Smith Chart, 105 24 Impedance Matching Networks, 112 25. Microstrip Matching Networks, 141 Microstrip Lines, 141 Design of Matching Networks, 152 26 Signal Flow Graphs and Applications, 175 ‘Applications of Signal Flow Graphs, 180 27 Power-Gain Expressions: Alternate Derivations, 185 Power-Gain Expressions in Terms of Sp parameters, 192 28 VSWR Calculations, 194 Problems. 200 3. MICROWAVE TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER DESIGN 212 3.1 Introduction, 212 32 Power Gain Equations, 213 33 Stability Considerations, 217 34 — Constant-Gain Circles: Unilateral Case, 228 Unconditionally Stable Case, Syl <1, 231 Potentially Unsiable Case, \Su) > 1, 234 35 Unilateral Figure of Merit, 238 3.6 Simultaneous Conjugate Match: Bilateral Case, 240 3.7 Operating and Available Power-Gain Circles, 247 Operating Power-Gain Circles, 257 Unconditionalty stable bilateral case, 247 Potentially unstable bilateral case, 252 Available Power-Gain Circles, 257 Unconditionally stable bilateral case, 257 Potentially unstable bilateral case, 260 38 Constant VSWR Circles, 260 39 DCBias Networks, 273 BIT Bias Networks, 273 GaAs FET Bias Networks, 280 Problems, 283 Contents v 4 NOISE, BROADBAND, AND HIGH-POWER DESIGN METHODS 296 4.1 Introduction, 294 4.2 Noise in Two-Port Networks, 295 43 Constant Noise Figure Circles, 299 44 Broadband Amplifier Design, 323 Balanced Amplifiers, Feedback Amplifiers, 45 Amplifier Tuning, 348 46 Bandwidth Analysis, 348 47 — High-Power Amplifier Design, 352 Class-A Operation, 353 (Class-B and Class-C Operation, 356 Intermodulation Distortion, 362 Power Combiners, 364 Design Examples, 365 48 Two-Stage Amplifier Design, 372 Problems, 374 5. MICROWAVE TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR DESIGN 384 5 Introduction, 384 52 Oscillation Conditions, 384 Feedback Oscillators, 384 ‘One -Port Negative-Resistance Oscillators, 388 53 Two-Port Negative-Resistance Oscillators, 397 54 Oscillator Design Using Large-Signal Measurements, 404 55 Oscillator Configurations, 411 Dielectric Resonator Oscillators, 414 VIG Oscillators, 422 Varactor-Tuned Oscillators, 425, Problems, 428 APPENDIX COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGNS 433 APPENDIXA .1. CIRCLE EQUATIONS: BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION 449 ‘A2. DERIVATION OF THE INPUT AND ‘OUTPUT STABILITY CIRCLES [EQUATIONS (8.3.5) AND (3.3.6)]. 451 APPENDIX B STABILITY CONDITIONS 453 APPENDIX ¢ APPENDIX D APPENDIX E APPENDIX F APPENDIX G APPENDIX H APPENDIX! APPENDIX.S APPENDIX K APPENDIX L APPENDIX M INDEX, UNCONDITIONAL STABILITY CONDITIONS: K> TandBy>0 DERIVATION OF THE UNILATERAL CONSTANT. GAIN CIRCLES [EQUATION (3.4.10)1, £.1. ANALYSIS OF (3.6.5) AND (3.6.6) FOR [Fine < 1 AND Fi) <1 2. CONDITION FOR A SIMULTANEOUS (CONJUGATE MATCH DERIVATION OF Grinex [EQUATION (3.6.10)] DERIVATION OF THE CONSTANT OPERATING POWER-GAIN CIRCLES EXPRESSIONS FORT m, CONSTANT VSWR CIRCLES (MAPPING OF CIRCLES IN THE F, AND T, PLANES NOISE CONCEPTS NOISE FIGURE OF AN AMPLIFIER CONDITIONS FOR A STABLE OSCILLATION Contonts g PREFACE In this second edition, I have expanded considerably the material in the origi- nal book. New material has been included throughout the book to cover seat- {ering parameter techniques in detail. Additional design procedures have been included for amplifiers and oscillators, At the suggestion of many readers, de- tailed derivations are included for several relations that were either referenced ‘or included in the problems sections of the first edition. The revisions and ad- ditions make the text as self-contained as possible. Many new examples and problems have been added. The main objective of this book has remained to present a unified treat- ‘ment of the analysis and design of microwave transistor amplifiers using scat- tering parameters techniques. The term microwave frequencies is used to refer to those frequencies whose wavelengths are in the centimeter range (ic, 1 to 100 em), However, the design procedures and analysis presented in this book are not limited to the microwave frequencies. Infact, they can be used in any frequency range where the scattering parameters of a transistor are known. This book is intended to be used in a senior-graduate-level course in microwave transistor amplifiers and oscillators, or by practicing microwave en- gineers. It is assumed that the reader has completed the undergraduate net- work theory, electronics, and electromagnetic courses, or equivalent courses. ‘The transmission-line theory needed is fully covered in this book, especially the use of Smith charts as a design tool. The main transistors used in microwave amplifiers and oscillators are the silicon bipolar junction transistor (BIT) and the gallium-arsenide metal- Semiconductor field-effect transistor (GaAs MESFET). The high-clectron vit wi Preface mobility transistor is also discussed (HEMT). The BIT performs very well up ‘to approximately 4 GHz. In this frequency range the BJTs are reliable, low cost, have a high gain, and a low noise figure. The GaAs MESFET performance above approximately 4 GHz is superior to that of the BJT, as well as for very low-noise applications below 4 GHz. ‘Microwave transistors are conveniently represented by two-port net works and characterized by scattering parameters. The scattering parameters are popular because they are easy to measure with modern network analyzers, their use in microwave transistor amplifier design is conceptually simple, and they provide meaningful design information, Furthermore, flow graph theory is readily applicable. Chapter 1 to 4 present the basic principles and techniques used in micro- wave transistor amplifier analysis and design. These chapters provide the foun- dation for a well-designed microwave transistor amplifier. Specifically, Chapter 1 a detailed review of transmission-line concepts is given. The section on transmission lines provides a comprehensive presentation of transmission- line theory under a sinusoidal excitation. A new section dealing with power waves and generalized scattering parameters is included. The measurement of the scattering parameters is discussed. The section on the characteristics of microwave transistors has been updated, Chapter 7 hegins with a discussion of Smith charts, The design of match- ing networks in the Smith charts using lumped elements and microstrip trans- mission lines is discussed, Two- and three-lumped-clements matching networks are discussed in detail, as well as a variety of microstrip matching configura- tions, Signal flow graphs are used to derive the gain relations, and a section on the derivation of power relations directly from the incident and reflected waves is included. Power-gain expressions in terms of the power scattering parame- ters are given. Relations for the calculations of VSWRs and mismatch factors are discussed. Chapter 3 deals with microwave transistor amplifier design. A detailed derivation of the stability conditions has been included. Design procedures are presented involving the transducer power gain, the operating power gain, and the available power gain. Constant-gain circles for unilateral and bilateral de- vices are derived. A section dealing with the trade-offs between VSWRs and gain has been included. The last part of the chapter discusses the selection and design of various de bias networks. ‘Chapter 4 treats the topics of low-noise amplifiers and the trade-offs be- tween low-noise performance, gain, and VSWRs. New material on the design of broadband amplifiers, balance amplifiers, couplers, and feedback amplifiers js included, The section of power amplifiers has been expanded significantly. Chapter 5 discusses oscillators, Basically, an oscillator consists of an am- plifier with the proper amount of feedback to make it oscillate. The negative- Fesistance approach to oscillator design is studied in detail. A variety of Gacillators are designed using BJTs, GaAs FETs, dielectric resonators (DRs), and varactor diodes. Preface & Several new appendixes that supplement the text material are included. For example, Appendix A discusses circles equations, the bilinear transforma- tion, and transformation properties of circles. The derivation of the stability conditions is provided in Appendix B. Appendix I shows the derivation of the constant input and output VSWR circles Appendix K discusses noise concepts, and Appendix L shows the derivation of the noise figure relation for a two- port network. ‘The number of problems has been increased significantly, The prob- lems form an integral part of the text, and even if they are not solved, they should be read. Many of the design calculations in this book can be conveniently made using a simple computer-aided design (CAD) program or a programmable cal- culator. In the first edition of the book, a listing of the program UM-MAAD. (University of Miami Microwave Amplifiers Analysis and Design) was given. ‘The latest version of UM-MAAD can be obtained from the author by sending him, at the address provided at the end of this Preface, a 3.5” disk and a stamped, self-addressed envelope. This CAD program, written in FORTRAN- This simple to use. For completeness, some design examples using a large-scale CAD pro- gram are given in the Appendix titled “Computer-Aided Designs” The exam- plesillustrate some of the simulations and optimizations that can be performed using a large-scale CAD program. It is only after the problem is fully under- stood that CAD techniques should be used. Otherwise, the natural human ten- dency to be erroneous and inefficient can substantially increase the cost of a design. The large-scale CAD program used in the Appendix titled “Computer. Aided Designs” is the Hewlett-Packard HP85150B Microwave and RF Design ‘Systems (referred to as the HP MDS program). copy of this program was do- nated by Hewlett-Packard to the University of Miami in 1990 for teaching and. research purposes. Many of my students and users of the first edition have provided input to this book. I wish to thank all of my former students for their helpful comments, especially the invaluable suggestions and constructive criticisms from Branko ‘Avani, Willam Sanfiel, Deniz Ergener, Ching Y. Kung, Claudio J Thsavina, event Y. Erbora, Augusto E. Rodriguez, Edgar Duque, Sergio Bustamante, and William C-Pirkie ever, gar Dov, Sergio Bstamanis This second edition was carefully reviewed by Orlando Sosa, Ramon Ponce, and Mahes M. Ekanayake. The contributions of Dr. Branko Avanicto the solutions of the problems were very helpful, as were his many inputs. Dr. Kamal Premaratne, a friend and colleague, has provided comments and inputs to both the first and second editions of this book, especially inthe chapter on oscillators Over the years, I have also received support and encouragement from several colleagues—namely, Professors Tay Young, Reuven Lask, Kamal Ya- coub, Manuel A. Huerta, and James C. Nearing, " Talso wish to give special thanks to Dr. Les Besser. In the 1970 he first introduced me to CAD methods applied to microwave transistor amplifier x Preface design. Over the years, he has motivated my thinking and influenced the way that I approach some design problems Dr. Besser has also done a lot to promote education in the microwave electronics field. He teaches a variety of excellent courses (Besser Associates, 4600 El Camino Real #210, Los Altos, CA 94022) which are very well known and highly regarded in the microwave industry. Finally, my deepest appreciation goes to my wife, Pat, my children, Donna and Alex, and my late parents, Ricardo and Raquel, for their love, encourage- ‘ment, and patience. Guillermo Gonzalez, Ph.D. University of Miami | Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Coral Gables, Florida 33124 REPRESENTATIONS OF TWO-PORT NETWORKS 1.1 INTRODUCTION In order to characterize the behavior of a two-port network, measured data of both its transfer and impedance functions must be obtained. At low frequen- cies, the zy, or ABCD parameters are examples of network functions used in the description of two-port networks. These parameters cannot be measured accurately at higher frequencies because the required short- and open-circuit tests are difficult to achieve over a broadband range of microwave frequencies. Asset of parameters that is very useful in the microwave range are the scat- tering parameters (S parameters). These parameters are defined in termsof trav- ling waves and completely characterize the behavior of two-port networks. In the 1970s the popularity of S parameters increased because of the ap- pearance of new network analyzers, which performed S-parameter measure- ‘ments with case. The S parameters are simple to use in analysis, and flow graph theory is directly applicable, Although the principal use of S parameters in this textis in the characterization of two-port networks, they can also be used in the characterization of n-port networks. Power waves and the use of generalized scattering parameters (S, para- ‘meters) in the analysis of two-port networks are also discussed. 1.2 THE IMPEDANCE, ADMITTANCE, HYBRID, AND ABCD MATRICES ‘Atlow frequencies the two-port network shown in Fig. 1.21 ean be represented in several ways. The most common representations are the impedance ma- ‘tix (z parameters), the admittance matrix (y parameters) the hybrid matrix Representations of Two-Port Networks Twopot =“ ieee * Port2 Chap. 1 | 5 gee 121 Tworpont network p= seaaton (he parameters), and the chain or ABCD matrix (chain or ABCD parameters). ‘These parameters are defined as follows: 2 Parameters: or in matrix form y Parameters: h Parameters: Y= Zui + Zab We = tah + Zaahs [:I-t ABCD Parameters (‘lf met eal ‘The previous two-port representations are very useful at low frequencies because the parameters are readily measured using short- and open-circuit tests at the terminals of the two-port network. For example, zu a is measured with an ac open circuit at port 2 (ie. i2 = 0). ‘The z, y, and ABCD parameters are also useful in the computer analysis of circuits, When two-port networks are connected in series, as shown Fig. 1.2.2, we can find the overall z parameters by adding the individual z par meters, namely [ _[ur4 © (a If ah + zh zit th th + zh étall b S0c.1.2 The Impedance, Admittance, Hybrid, and ABCD Matrices 3 atin Ft eel lat aa] [+ wl a —| [24 78) |- ” a "lpi Zl] lle - ila alle [igure 1.22 Series connection using z parameters anda typial application, When two-port networks are connected in shunt, as shown in Fig. 1.2.3, we can find the overall y parameters by adding the individual y parameters, namely al _[a+é]_fyhton oh toh] fw (-E-k Ea] ‘When cascading two-port networks the chain or ABCD matrix can be used as follows (see Fig. 1.2.4): (i) TA[e ele} [e elle SIL 3] «2 om ei a i] Sot lel dm revel at ve igure 123 Shunt connection using y parameters anda typical application, 4 fepresenationsofTwo-Por Networks Chap. aA 4 os + 2 * + | fae eo + fae ell . a 4 eo6 Seeley el |e Figure1.24 Cascade connection using ABCD parametersandatypical aplication, because vj = vP and —if = if. The relation (1.2.1) shows that the overall ABCD matrix is equal to the product (ie., matrix multiplication) of the indi- vidual ABCD matrices. ‘At microwave frequencies the z, yh, or ABCD parameters are very dit- ficult (if not impossible) to measure. The reason is that short and open circuits to ac signals are difficult to implement over a broadband, at microwave fre- ‘quencies. Also, an active two-port (e.g, microwave transistor) might oscillate under short- or open-circuit conditions. Therefore, a new representation of the two-port network at microwave frequencies is needed. The appropriate repre- sentation is called the scattering matrix and the scattering parameters are de- fined in terms of traveling waves. 1.3 TRANSMISSION-LINE CONCEPTS: ‘There are many varieties of transmission lines. Three common types of trans- mission lines are shown in Fig. 1.3.1: the two-wire transmission line, the coaxial transmission line, and the microstrip transmission line. The microstrip trans- rission line is the most appropriate for the construction of microwave ampli- fiers. The theory of operation of these transmission lines can be explained using a distributed circuit model for the transmission lines, Such a model provides practical results for the voltage and current along the transmission lines with- out having to resort to Maxwell’s equations. ‘An electrical model fora transmission line is shown in Fig. 1.3.2a. Viewed 8 a two-port network, the transmission line receives power from the source at the input port (source end) and delivers power to the load at the output port (oad end). The length /of the transmission line is divided into many identical ‘See, 13 Transmission-Line Concepts 5 | @ Cy) © Figure 3.1 (a)Two-wire transmission line;(b) coaxial transmission ine; (€) micro strip transmission line. sections dr. Each section Ax is modeled by a resistance R per unit length (R in Qim), an inductance L per unit length (Lin Him), a capacitance C per unit length (Cin Fim), and a conductance G per unit length (G in S/m). These pa- rameters are assumed to be constant along the transmission line (i.e.,the trans- ‘mission line is uniform). Figure 1.3.2b shows a section x of the transmission line and the voltage and currents atthe input and output ports ofthe section 4x of transmission line. Observe that the voltages and currents along the transmission fine are func tions of position and time. At the input of the section x the voltage and cur- rent are (x,t) and i(x,), while at the output the voltage and current are Max + Ax) and i(x + Ax). Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the model in Fig. 1.32b gives Mees) ~ Wr # Bus) = Raxilas) + Lax MED Dividing by 4x we ean write Mot Atl) = VO) peg y — diletd ax ‘Ri(x) - L or ‘Asx approaches zero the left-hand side is recognized as the partial derivative of v(x.) with respect to x. Hence, taking the limit as 4x0 we obtain - 2G) = Rita) ~ LAD 31) Simitary, applying Kirchhotf's curren law tothe modelin Fig. 13.2bgives es) ~ tex + da) = Gaevle + At) + Ca ME AED Dividing by 4x and taking the limit as 41-90 results in BD. ay) — cE 1 6 Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 ‘ pt o— x Od : e aa lie | z L cae x ax ‘ax , bk fe —| + —*_+ o OO ane fe ee ee wort det) xt) al Morea) © © Figure 1.32. (a) A distributed circuit model fora transmission line;(b) seston Ae ofthe transmission line; (c) a section dx ina lossless transmission line. ‘The partial differential equations (1.3.1) and (1.3.2) describe the voltages and currents along the transmission lines. Of particular practical interest in mi- ccrowave electronics s the lossless transmission line—that is,a transmission line where R and G are negligible, or simply R = G = 0.A section Ax in a lossless transmission line is shown in Fig. 13.2c. Inalossless transmission line, R= G = Oand (1.3.1) and (1.3.2) reduce to duet) ed (133) and 00.1.3 Transmission-Line Concepts 7 ail, ax (34) We are interested in the solution of (1.3.3) and (1.3.4) for a sinusoidal ex- citation of the line. Phasor analysis will be used to obtain the steady-state solu- tion for v(x) and I(x). For a sinusoidal excitation [ie.,for w(t) = V,cos wt] the steady-state volt- agesand currentsalong the transmission line are also sinusoidal functions of time ‘whose dependence on position and time can be expressed in the general form vers) = fla)eos(ot + gx) (3s) and ied) = g(x)eos(ot + n(x)) (136) where f(x) and g(x) are real functions of position and where (x) and n(x) de- scribe the positional dependence of the phase. Using Euler's formula, namely el” = cos 0 + jsin where cos 0 is the real part of e (ie, Re[e#] = cos 6) and sin @ is the imaginary part of e” (ic.,.mfe] = sin @), we can express (1.3.5) and (1.3.6) in the form WExu) = fladeos(wt + 94) = flx)RefeKr*#)] = Re[flajel"e] (1.3.7) and ie.) = g(a)cos(wt + 9(x)) = g@)Refert*"] = Relgtxje™e"] (138) In (1.3.7) and (1.3.8) we can define the phasor quantities, Vix) = fle and Hex) = g(aer and write (1.3.7) and (1.38) in the form arf) = Re[V(x)e™] (13.9) and ies) = Reli(se] (13.10) ‘The phasors V(x) and [(x) are complex functions of position and express the variations of the voltage and current as a function of position along the transmission line. Substituting (1.3.9) and (1.3.10) into (1.3.3) gives Zreiayety = -1 2 Retroe™| aan 8 Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 ‘Since the Re operator commutes with the /@x and a/@r operators, we can write (13.11) in the form nen] = ease Observing that V(x) is only a function of position, it follows that ava) _ av) ox dx and (1.3.12) can be written as re (2 + sotto] =0 (13.3) Equation (1.3.13) must be satisfied for all times t. Therefore, the term in paren- theses must be zero, namely MO jute) asia) Actually, this last step might not be so obvious to the reader. It can be Proved by observing that for wt = 0,¢ = 1, and (1.3.13) gives dx and for at = 2/2, eh? = j, and (1.3.13) gives nt na] -0 ne +t] =0 (1315) if 2+ tt] 0 ane Equations (1.3.15) and (1.3.16) show that both the real and imaginary parts of (4V(x)ldx) + jooLI(x) must be zero. Hence, (1.3.14) is verified. A comparison of (1.3.3) and the corresponding phasor equation in (1.3.14) shows that (1.3.14) follows by simply replacing in (1.33) the 2/9r oper- ator by jo, and v(x.) and iG) by the phasors Vix) and I(x), respectively. The use of phasors allows us to change the partial differential equation (1.3.3) into the ordinary differential equation (1.3.14). Similarly, substituting (1.3.9) and (1.3.10) into (1.3.4) results in the fol- lowing phasor equation: alex) de 7 eV) 37) ‘sec. 1.3 Transmiasion-Line Concepts 9 Equations (1.3.14) and (1.3.17) are the differential equations satisfied by the phasors V(x) and 1(2) along a lossless transmission line. These equa- tions can be solved for V(x) and 1(x) as follows. Differentiating (1.3.14) with respect to x gives “~ (1318) substituting (13.17) into (3.18) gives EMO) —joL(-jocyMa) = ~«FLCMH) ou + BVx) = 0 (13.19) here B= oVLC (1.320) “The parameter f (in radians per meter) is known as the propagation constant. ‘The general solution to the second-order differential equation in (23:9) is V(x) = Aes + Belt 13.21) where the constants A and B are, in general, complex constants. They can be evaluated using the boundary conditions at the input and output ports of the transmission line. ‘The general solution I(x) can be obtained from (1.3.14) and (1.3.21). Thatis, ald) _ a1 yes peity Laren apis ia (13.22) = Ltaens — poly Defining the characteristic impedance of the transmission line as : ol. ol jE 1323) A B (x) = A eis — F gion 13.24) 1) = 4 Fe 1324) From (1.3.23) we observe that Zin a lossless transmission line is real ‘The time-dependent form of the voltage and current along the trans- ‘mission line follows from (1.3.9) and (1.3.10)."That i, 0 Represontations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 Mars) = Re[Vixpet] = Re[AeniP™—=9 + Bel] (1.3.25) and (xd) = Re[Maye] = Rel fern 5 ral (13.26) In the simple case that A and B are real, (1.3.25) and (1.3.26) can be ex- pressed in the form v(x) A cos(wt ~ x) + Beos(at + Bx) (1327) and iat) = 4 costar — fe) Zoster + Bo) (1328) The functions A cos(wt ~ Bx) and B cos(at + Bx) are known as wave functions. Let us examine the wave characteristics of these functions. Let ¥1G%0) = A cos(wt ~ Bx). The function vi(x0) can be analyzed by first fixing the position x and observing the behavior of w(x!) as a function of time. To this end we letx = O and plot (0,1) = A cos wt in Fig. 1.3.3. The function v4(0f) is seen to vary sinusoidally as time increases. In Fig. 1.33a the time interval between {two consecutive equal values of te periodic signal is defined as the period T. Hence, in Fig. 1.3.3a the period T'is given by ot|ar = 2x or mt T of Next, we examine the behavior of (x) asa function of position. To this end we let f= O and plot (x40) = A cos px in Fig. 1.3.3b. In Fig. 1.3.3b the dis- tance between two consecutive equal values of the signal is defined as the wavelength. Hence, the wavelength is given by Balas = 2 es ax 3 Ewe now look at two values of vi(x,0) as a function of time we can caleu- late the speed of propagation of the wave. For example, at times and f (where >t) we have a (1.3.29) Wile) = A cos(fr ~ of) and ‘Transmission-Line Concepts 1" sec. 13 wout) en A A 2a Be -A : i ® micxt) wbx) Figure 133 (2 lation ofthe phase velocity. W(e) = A cos(Br — ot) A pplot of w(t) and w(,2)is shown in Fig.1.3.3c.A point of constant phase a at 1 1, and at = fis shown in the figure. Since at point a the phase of w(xi, 11), identical to the phase of w(xa2) we can write MGit) = Gat) 2 Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 cos(Bx, ~ at;) = cos(Br, ~ wt) Hence, Bx — of, = px, — oy (1.330) aon B ‘The quantity on the let is recognized as the speed of propagation of the point a, known as the phase velocity vp. That i, 1 b-h Bove Vie Substituting (1.320) into (1.3.29) and using (1.331) we obtain Qa __ da BO oVLC In other words, the wavelength is the distance traveled by the wave in a time interval equal to one period Furthermore, from (1.3.30) since f2 > f: and wif is a positive quantity, it follows that x2 ~ 1 must be positive or x2 > xi. This shows that the point of con- stant phase is moving toward the right in Fig. 1.33c (ie., toward the load in a ‘ansmission line). In other words, the function A cos(w ~ Bx) represents a traveling wave moving ata velocity vp toward the load. This wave is called an outgoing wave when viewed from the source, or an ineident wave when viewed from the load. ‘The analysis of B cos(et + fx) will show that this function represents a traveling wave moving at a velocity vp toward the left (ie., toward the source ina transmission line). This wave is called an incoming wave when viewed from the source, or a reflected wave when viewed from the load. The nomenclature incident wave and reflected wave is preferred in transmission-line work. Since the wave A cos(o ~ fx) is associated with the phasor Ae~*, and Bcos(wt + Bx) with Bet, we also refer tothe phasor Ae-s#«asthe incident wave (in phasor form) and Beit as the reflected wave (in phasor form). The quantity xis known as the electrical length of the line. In general, the voltage and cur- rent ina transmission line are composed of an incident and a reflected wave. ‘A transmission line of characteristic impedance Zp, length J, and termi- nated ina load Z, is shown in Fig. 13.4a. The source end is located atx = Oand the load end at x = J The incident and reflected waves are also shown where the wavy arrow symbol is used to denote a wave. tis convenient in some transmission-tine problems to show the load end at a distance zero and the source end at a distance / from the load. Letting ~ din (1.321) and (1.3.24) we can write (see Fig. 13.4b) Bone " 4331) eyr Sec. 1.3 Transmission-Line Concepts Ps Tia) —— we Aerts w= Aoi 2 a 2 4 a Bele ~ Be x= mee ase a= Wn) = Aerts Bolt Vid) = Ayes Byer? aye MotB gee Avs Aot 8, = Bom e Figure 13.4 Transmission line with the source end at x =O and load end at x = (6) transmission line withthe load end at d= 0 and source end at d = Vid) = Aye™ + Bye (sz) and Ha) = Seite — Bi eta (1333) where Ai = Ae! and By = Be#The change x = 1 ~ d (such that d =~ x)is done in some transmission-line problems in order to measure positive distanc as one moves from the load (at d = 0) toward the source (at d = 1). From (1.3.32) and (1.3.33) we observe that in terms of the variable d the phasor Aue represents the incident wave and Bye~#! the reflected wave (see Fig. 1.3.4b). Figure 1.3.4 summarizes the two nomenclatures commonly used in the analy- sis of transmission lines. ‘The reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of the incident to the re. flected wave along a transmission line, In Fig. 13.4b the reflection coefficient al any position d, denoted by iw(d), is Bet By aise Ao Be (1.3.34) Tx(d) = The load reflection coefficient, denoted by To, is the value of Tin(d) at 1 That is “ Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 Hence, (1.3.34) can be exprested in the form Tyy(d) = Tye"? (13.35) ‘Also, (1.3.32) and (1.3.33) can be expressed in the forms V(d) = Ay(el™ + Tye) = AyeM(L + Tye 4) (1.3.36) and A A = Aa (eit — Pygnty 2 Ad i864 — Pye" Ha) = Felt — Tip t= Held — Tye PM) (13.37) The value of the complex constant Ai is obtained by using a known value of Vd) (ie., a boundary condition), usually the value of V(d) at the source end (ic.,atd = 1), Of course, the value of V(d) at d = depends on the source am- plitude and phase and source impedance connected to the line at d = 1. As we will show shortly [see (1.3.39) the complex constant Io is simply evaluated in terms of Z, and Ze Referring to Fig. 1.3.5, the input impedance of the transmission line at any position dis defined as ot a Tyee Lh) = IO = 2. (1338) In (1.3.38) the constant Fo can be evaluated using the boundary condition, at the load, namely that the value ofthe input impedance at d = O must be equal to Zi. Thatis, Zyl) = Z, Then, from (1.3.38) 1+ Zn(0) = Zp = Zip or 2-2, (1339) Z,+Z, Pw 5 a | May 2, a ae ao Znia) = 2) Figure 1.45 Input impedance of the oly ‘transmission line at any position d. ‘g00. 1.3 Transmission-Line Concepts 6 Equation (1.3.39) shows that [> = 0 when Z; = Zo. That is, there is no reflec- tion from the load when Z = Z».A line with Zz, = Z, is called a properly ter- tn Fed of matched transmission line. Substituting (123.39) into (1.3.38 gives Zi + y= CE, = 2) 2 cos id +2, sin Bd 7, cos fd + jZ, sin Bd = 7 Zat ieqtanpd ~ 407+ jz, tan Bd Zrsld) = Zo =z, (1.3.40) Equation (1.340) gives the value of the input impedance at any location d along the transmission line. At d = 0, (1.3.40) reduces to Zix(0) = Z1, as ex- pected. At the input of the line the input impedance follows from (1.3.40) ‘ith d= A very important property of a transmission line, and one that is Used extensively in the design of microwave amplifiers, is the ability of the transmission line to change a load impedance to another value of impedance at its input. “The addition of the two waves traveling in opposite directions in a trans. mission line produces a standing-wave pattert—that is,a sinusvidal function of time whose amplitude is a function of position. 16) the magnitude of the voltage along the line is given by |vd)| = [Ay] [1 + Toe? a3) From (1.341), it follows that the maximum value of |Y(d) along the line has the value {M@)Imox = [Ail G+ [Tol (1.3.42) and the minimum value of | Yd} is [M@)lnin = 14a] — [Fold (13.43) ‘These values are used to define the voltage standing-wave ratio(VSWR),namely [M@) nas 1+ [Pol VSWR = pak = (1.3.44) Mle T= TP : We now analyze four important cases of transmission lines: the matched line, the short-circuited line, the open-circuited line, and the quarter-wave line In the properly terminated or matched transmission line shown in Fig. 1.36a, we obtain from (1.3.39), (1.3.40), and (1.3.44) that To = 0, Zix(d) = Zi, and VSWR = 1. In other words, there is no reflected wave (since Ty = 0), the input impedance is Ze at any locaton andthe VSWR has its minimum value of one. 6 Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 Zqil)= MZptan pe ad) ~ he ot pe @ © Figore 1.346. (a) The matched transmission line) the short 1, the power reflected is larger than the power available at port 1. Therefore, in this case port | acts as a source of power and oscillations can occur. ‘The evaluation of Sa at the unprimed reference plant is as follows: ) wo V2 qT} (h) tere _ a VZahkb) | Ven Fh) lo ‘The last step in (1.6.16) follows because J(h) = 13(h)—f3(h) = ~17(h)[since Tb) = 0). Equation (1.6.16) van be manipulated further (o unake the evaluation of Sn simpler. To this end we replace the network in Fig. 1.62 by the equivalent network shown in Fig. 1.6.3. The equivalent network was obtained by finding the Thévenin’s equivalent at ports 1 and 2. At port 1 the Thévenin’s voltage is called En and the Thévenin’s resistance (obtained by setting Fi = 0) is sim- ply Z.). The Thévenin voltage (ie., the open-circuit voltage at x1 =I; in Fig. 1.62) canbe shown tobe Emi = Bye". At the matched port2, the Thévenin'sequiv- alent resistance is Za From (1.6.3), {(i) is given by (1.6.16) Hy 2 Vz," 2z,, i) + Zuh(h)) (1.6.17) zn Zou ne | ble) * ate) | twopmt laud," cm — wes | peat [I= y0y $20 Port pont 2 nag ata igure L63Two-port network with Thévenin's equivalent at ports 1 and 2. 3A Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 where from Fig, 1.6.3, Vi(/) is given by Md) = Ein ~ Zath(h (16.18) ‘Substituting (1.6.18) into (1.6.17) gives 34) = Same 1.6.19) RG) = (16:19) ‘Also, at port 2 of Fig. 1.6.3 we have ~hlh) ‘Substituting (1.6.19) and (1.6.20) into (1.6.16) results in the following practical expression for Six: (1.620) = Zu Va) (1.621) VZq Euan Equation (1.6.21) shows that S21 represents a forward voltage transmi sion coefficient from port 1 to port 2. To evaluate Soi at the primed reference planes, one uses (1.5.4). From (1.6.21), Sa? can be expressed as Liar FOF, Esl, [sua which shows that [Su represents the ratio of the power delivered to the load “Zea i.e. Pr) to the power available from the source Ey;nt (ie., Pays). The ratio P./Paysisknown as the transducer power gain Gr. Hence, the transducer power gain is given by Gr= |Sul* (1.622) It 2 = Zz = Zyit follows from (1.6.21) that If we analyze the network shown in Fig. 1.6.4 in which the sinusoidal ex- citation represented by the phasor £2 with source impedance Z2 = ZoNis placed 1.8 Properties of Scattering Parameters 8 & ay@)=0 | — Two-port ae 21 pl network Port 1 Pont Port 2 Port 2 x=0 a nae MnO Figure L64 Two-port network excited by the voltage source F with internal inn pedance Z: = Zu and terminated in he impedance Z at port 2' and port 1’ is matched (i.e., Z1 = Zot) we find that at the unprimed reference planes “pF (1.623) and EAC) 2VZn Villy) als) |aeye0 V2, Exar where Ear isthe Thévenin’s voltage at port 2. Equation (1.6.23) shows that Sz2 is the reflection coefficient of port 2 with port I terminated in its normalizing impedance Zi = Zoi [ie., a(li) = 0], and Si2 represents a reverse voltage transmission coefficient from port 2 to port 1. Equation (1.5.4) can be used to evaluate Sip and Sy at the primed reference planes. ‘The quantity (Sx? represents the ratio of the power reflected from port 2 to the power available at port 2. If Sza| > 1, the power reflected is larger than the power available at port 2 and oscillation can occur. The quantity |Si2? rep- resents a reverse transducer power gain. Infact, ‘The S parameters of a transistor are commonly measured with Zor = Zon =Zqand Z; = Z_= Zoin Fig. 1.6.2. These S parameters are said to be mea- sured in a Z, system. If this transistor is then used in the circuit of Fig. 1.6.2 with arbitrary terminations Z; and Zs the gain Gr is no longer given by (1.6.22). In Sections 2.6 [see (2.6.13)] we will show that for arbitrary values of Z: and Z2 36 Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 the gain Gr can be expressed in terms of Z;, Zs, and the S parameters of the transistor measured in a Z, system, Example 1.6.1 Evaluate the S parameters, in a Z, system, of (a) a series impedance shunt admittance ¥. Z and (b) a Solution. (a) The two-port network ofa series impedance is shown in Fig 1.6.50, and the network connected to transmission lines with characteristic impedances Zo, €x- cited by a source represented by the phasor E; with source impedance Zi = Zo, and terminated in the normalizing impedance Z2 = Z, is shown in Fig. 1.6.5b (ie. in a Z, system). The Thévenin's equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 1.65 "The 5 parameters are evaluated at the reference planes denoted by port 1 and port 2. From (1.6.14) we find that ~ bl) Zn-%, U8 ah) laaey-0 Zi + Zo where from Fig. 1.65 Zn = Z + ZeTherefor, z Sa" FR (1.624) Since Vth) is given by (see Fig. 1.6.50) ale Ve) = Zar vee find from (1.6.21) (with Zon = Zou = Zo) that oy = a) - 2 (1.625) Eym 2*2Z, From symmetry, we observe that Sz: = Sy and Sia = Sz. If the two-port network consists of a series inductor with Z = j100 8, then in @ 50-0 system (i.e, with Zy = 50 2) it follows that the $ parameters ofthe series induc- tor from (1.6.24) and (1.625) are _[ 07074? 0.707|=45" o.707|=45° —_0.707|45° (b) The two-port network of a shunt admittance is shown in Fig. 1.66a, and the terminated network is shown in Fig. 1.6.6b. The Thévenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig [Link] this case (s) Z, T+Z¥ 1 tn= ple and from (1.6.14) (0.625) Sec. 1.6 Properties of Scattering Parameters a Zz Port Pot 2 Zaz w @ Figure 1.65 (a) A two-port network consisting ofa series impedance Z;(b) the tworport network excited by a source and terminated inthe normalizing impedance Zo~ Zs (o)a Thevenin’s equi Since from Fig. 6.6 an __Eum Zn+Z, 2+2,Y vat) we obtain from (1.6.21) that ~™®_ Eira (0.627) ‘Again, from symmetry we observe that Six « Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 es Pont Por Port Port2 © Zn —- ze : + Y vAeaE2 Em . - — Pont Pon? Oo Figure 1.66 (a) A two-port network consisting of a shunt admittance YS (b) the tworpott network excited by a source and terminated inthe normalizing impedance Zy= Ze) A Tevenin’s equivalent circuit, If the two-port network consists of a shunt 100-0 resistor (i., Y= 1/100 = 10 ‘$), then in a 50-@ system it follows that the $ parameters of the shunt resistor from (0.6226) and (1.6.27) are “4% Me My irited shunt stub shown in Fig. 1.6.7a. Example 1.62 Evaluate the S parameters ofthe short Sec. 1.6 Properties of Scattering Paramotors 9 Figure 1.67 (a) A short-circuited shunt sub, (b) equivalent shunt admittance, Solution: The input impedance of a short-circuited shunt stub of length / was derived in Section 1.3,namely Zu (2) = jZotan fil. Henee, its input admittance (denoted by Y)is =i¥, cot pl where ¥o = UZ. ‘The short-cicuited shunt stub can be replaced by its equivalent shunt admittance ¥-as shown in Fig. 1.6.7. Then, using the results of Example 1.6.1(b), the § parameters of the shunt admittance in Fig, 1.6.7b in a Z, system are readily found. That is from (1.626) we obtain -Z,Y 1 5, s 2+Z,¥ "1+Punsl and from (1.6.27) jeot Bl Example4.63 In the two:port network shown in Fig. 1.6.8 () Find Zin(0), (b) Evaluate ay(0), by), 0218), by (2/8), and (0) {) Evaluate Vi(0), Vii), (0), and h(2/8) (a) Evaluate the average input power atx (e) Evaluate Si atx; = Oand.n = 28 (® Evaluate the input VSWR and the output VSWR. (@) If the scattering parameters of the two-port network measured at the 21 = m= AB reference planes are Si = 0:447 [68.°, Sys = 000 [40", Su = 5 [135° and Sin = 06 [40",cafeulate the power delivered to the load Zs, Q and at x; = 2/8 0 Representations of Two-Part Networks Chap. 1 2n(0) 2m =50+/50.0 son | ab) ae be “| Two-port B= 2-500 retwork 22500 aa baba) bes) x=0 m=M8 w= a8 Pont Port Port 2 Port2 Figore 1.68 Circuit diagram for Example 1.63. Solution: (2)Except for notational changes, the input impedance calelation is the same at that in Example 13.1. Tat is substituting Zn = 80 + 0 Q for Zi in (340) te tap impedance at ~ O [which corresponds tod = 28 (13.40) i 30 + 10 + 50) an 85 (b) Since at 21 =O the voltage V(0) is Vi() = 10 [0° ~ S0(0), it follows from (163) that (0) = ZpAd)|a—ae = 100 ~ {502 1 1 Fr AHUlO ~ SHO) + 5010) ‘Then, with = A/8it follows that &, = Bly = 2/4 and a0 (MO + 2,400) (418) = a,(0)e-™* = From (164), L 640) = Sia) ~ ZH = prwlO 20} (1628) “The current (0) sven by A. ; oe o63|18435" A (1.629) (50+ 100-750 ‘Substituting (1.6.29) into (1.6.28) gives 10) 0) = gto ~ sono) = oae|-2657 Ps) = = 316 SPOS 0316|18.43° Sec. 1.6 a ‘At the output port the line is matched. Hence, 3(0) = 0. ‘An alternative way of calculating the reflected wave by(2/8) isto calculate Si at 1x, = AB using (1.6.14), namely Zp 50 0 0 - 5 su FSS yao 7 044716389 (1.630) “Then »,(a8 _ = 03161843" (©) Vs(0) can be evaluated in several ways. We can use a voltage divider equation at 4 = Oto obtain (0) _ 10000 = 50) 597) gaxey MO = 3+ Zy(0) ~ 50 + (100 = 350) “The current (0) was evaluated in (1.6.29). Hence, (0) can also be evaluated us- ing (0) = 1(0)Zin(0). Alternatively, Vi(0) can be evaluated using the fact that (0 = BD = a) + 840) V4(0) = VZ, [a,(0) + b(0)] = V5O Vs) = VZ_ 1,218) + 6,018) Se leas + 03161843" Vi = 632|-2657°V and 1,8) = YG) _ 6321-2657 _ 9 ogo|—71.57 A Zn 50+ 50 (d) The input power at x: = Os 1 PO) = 5 RelM(OVFC 1 7 Rel7.07|=8.13°(0.063] ~18435*)] = 02 W and the power at xj = U8is P88) = FRelyasys7A9)] $ Re{6-32|-26 57"(0.089[71.57%)] ~ 02 W As expected, Pi(0) = Py (2/8) since the line is lossless. ‘Another way of caleulating P,(0) and P\(AV8) is to use (1.6.15). Since a Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap.1 it follows from (1.6.15) that Py(0) = Py(48) = Pays(1 ~ [Sn/?) = 025(1 ~ 0.447)?) = 02 W (e) Swat; = 218 was evaluated in (1.6.30) Similany, at the input ofthe line x1 = O (i.e atthe primed plane), denoting the value as Sj,,we obtain Zyy(0) ~ Z, _ (100 = j50) ~ 50 Zix(0) + 2, (100 j50) + 50 i oan] 2557" Observe that Si and Sy are related by [see (1.55)] Sy = SeO% = Siyel™ = 04476349" (0 Tee output transmission fine is matched (ie. Za ~ Zp = 50 @). Therefore the load refletion coefficient associated with Z: = 50 is zero, and the output VSWR is uit. "AL the input, the reflection coefficient associated with Zin is Si. Hence, using (1.3.4) with )eeplaced by Sn gives an input VSWR of 1+ [sul 1 +0447 vs 14 [Sul 140447 | swe = TT aay 2 Zaa= 50 ) it follows that a3(0) = (@) Since the output is matched (ic. Zz (48) = 0. Hence, from (1.6.6) we have that B48) = Sa (28) ;(aeeae) : yar) = 5135 (5 (cas) = asap Then 40) = byABe 4 = 35485" ‘The power delivered to Zs, PAO) = . {6y00 (3.54)? = 627W Scattering Matrix of n-Port Networks “The extension ofthe previous formulation to an n-port network is simple. Consider the n-port network shown in Fig, 1.6.9. The transmission lines are as- sumed to be lossless with characteristic impedance Zu (i= I to). Then it fol- lows that we can write the scattering matrix of the m port, at the unprimed reference planes, in the form (0) = (5) [al (1.631) ‘sec. 16 Properties of Scattering Parameters a zn we ales) =~ bills) Por? Port pon ee ewe 149 Annportneiork. Pow Pon where fal (1.632) By = 512.71) - 2.1) (1.6.33) Su Sv + Sa Sx Sy + Say sl= Sm Sao + Si and zi ; Oz; 0 z= ° Za “ Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 ‘The [a], [b},[V|-and [1] are column matrices. That is, [a] = bl= IM= “The S parameters of the n-port networks are easily measured. For exam- ple, from (1.631) Si at x3 = his given by bx(h) Zn -Za ah) fgwo=2.3,-.9 Zn + Zon where Zn is the impedance seen at port 1 with the other ports matched. In ‘other words, 5: can be measured by connecting a voltage source E; with source impedance Z.1 to port 1’ and terminating all other ports in their normal impedances (i... using matched terminations so that a, = 0 for j = 2,3,- ‘A transistor can be considered to be a three-port device, as shown in Fig, 1.6.10. In this case the scattering matrix, also called the indefinite scatering ‘matrix, is bd] ]Su Sz Sis}]e Sn Sn Sx||@ (1.6.34) bs} [Su Swe Sas} Las The name “indefinite scattering matrix” is used because no definite choice is made to ground a particular port. For example, the meaning of Sj in (1.6.34) is ee 4; |a-0.0,-0 (1.635) ‘That is, to measure Sy, reference resistances of $0 Q are used at ports 2 and 3. In a two-port common-emitter configuration, Su: is measured with the emitter grounded. Therefore, the value of Sir in (1.6.35) will be different from the value of Si in a two-port common-emitter configuration. Similarly, the pa- ‘rameters 52, 5a},and Sin (1.6.34) will be different from the Siz, S21,and Sz in 1 two-port common-emitter configuration. ‘a am be soe be igure 1640 A tramsbtoras a three-port — #é=-|F sec.1.7 Power Waves and Generalized Scattering Parameters “6 1.7 POWER WAVES AND GENERALIZED SCATTERING PARAMETERS In the previous two sections we showed that in a transmission fine it is quite natural to represent the voltage and currents in terms of traveling waves—that ig. an incident wave a(x) and a reflected wave (x). In this section we discuss the analysis of lumped circuits (from one-port to n-port lumped circuits) in terms of anew set of waves, called power waves. We first consider the one-port circuit shown in Fig. 1.7.1a, where both the source and load impedances are, in general, complex. The normalized incident and reflected traveling waves defined in (1.4.4) and (1.4.5) do not appear suit- able for the analysis ofthe circuit in Fig. 1.7-la since there is no transmission line, and therefore the characteristic impedance is not defined. In addition, the concept of a load reflection coefficient according to (1.3.39) or (1.4.3) has no meaning. However, we can introduce a new set of waves, called the power ‘waves. The power waves dp and bp are defined by a linear transformation anal- ‘ogous to (1.4.7) and (1.4.8). That is let 1 VR Teo any and 1 J a WR” 20) (1.7.2) where R, = Re{Z,)The definitions in (1.7.1) and (1.7.2) are such thatthe quan- tity $a, is equal to the power available from the source, and the reflected ower Wave bps zer0 when the load impedance is conjugately matched to the source impedance (i.e.,when Z = Z'). In Fig .7.1b a power-wave represen tation ofthe one-port network is shown, Let us look further into the significance of these power waves. From Fig. L7.1a the relation between Vand Jis v= (17.3) [eee [ z v % Ler el a (He) @ % Figure 7. (a) A lumped one-port nctwork, (b) power waves representation s Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 Substituting (1.7.3) into (1.7.1) gives a =~ ACRE (74) Hence, 3{a,|?). In the ci ‘when Zi, = Z%-In fact, the reader should recall that the power delivered to the load (P1), where E, 2|Z, +z, cal liye P= 5 PREZ attain its maximum value when Z = Z3,and Pix (or Pass) is given by ile =P, Pass = Pavs = 8B, which is identical t0 (1.75) Since! [a,? represents the power available from the source, then 2 >, should represent the reflected power. In fact, from (1.7.1) and (1.7.2) we obtain 1 1 BR, (V+ 2D (V+ Z.D* = Fe (V~ 2D (V- ZEN" 1 5b, = 5 Rev which is recognized as the power dissipated in Z, (i, Pt). Therefore, (176) From (1.7.6), we can also write 1 \2 5, Hence, the reflected power $[6, is equal to the available power from the source minus the power dissipated in the load. ‘Under conjugate matched conditions the power available from the source is delivered to Z, and the power reflected }|b,| is zero (a very important prop- Sec. 1.7 Power Waves and Ger a erty of the power waves). In fact, in the conjugate matched circuit shown in Fig. 1.7.2 we have and from (1.7.2) the reflected power wave is 1 WR 6, (Zi - 27D «77 as expected ‘A power-wave reflection coefficient Pp (also called a generalized reflec- tion coefficient) can be defined as the ratio of bp to dp. Hence, from (1.7.1) and (1.7.2) we obtain (178) ‘Using (1.7.8) we can express (1.7.6) in the form PG = IEP) = Pavs(l = IEP) Solving (1.7.1) and (1.7.2) for Vand I gives (Zia, + Z,b,) (1.7.9) and L ee —b, 7.10) VE) (1.710) Figure 1.72 Conjugate matched net work. “ Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 ‘One should observe that the addition and subtraction of the incident and reflected traveling waves in (1.4.4) and (1.4.5) is equal tothe normalized voltage and cur- rent along the transmission line, while from (1.7.9) and (1.7.10) the voltage and currents are not given by a simple addition or subtraction of the power waves. From (1.7.9) and (1.7.10) we can also define incident and reflected volt- ages and currents (denoted by V3, VT}, and /;) and relate them to the power waves That is, let V=Vp+V, ara) and (1.7.12) where 7.43) (17.14) (74s) and is (17.16) From (1.7.13) and (1.7.14) a voltage reflection coefficient Tv can be de- fined as _ wa 77) Furthermore, from (1.7.15) and (1.7.16) a current reflection coefficient Pv can be defined as which is identical to the power-wave reflection coefficient. ‘An alternative way of introducing the power waves would be to define incident and reflected voltages (V;; and V/,) in Fig. 1.7.18 and then define the power waves dp and By in terms of V; and Vj. We will not go through this de- Yelopment of the power waves since it would be somewhat repetitious. How- ever, a better understanding of the previous concepts is gained by calculating directly the incident and reflected voltages in Fig. 1.7-1a, and then verifying their relationship with the power waves fic. (1.7.13) and (1.7.14)) Sec. 1.7 Power Waves and Generalized Scattering Parameters ° a Oe (1.7.18) Using (1.7.4), (1.7.18) can be expressed in the form, which is recognized as (1.7.13). In Fig. L7.1a, Vis given by EZ, v Z+Z, Since V= Vj + Vp and Vj is given by (1.7.18), it follows that the reflected voltage is EZ, bgt Z-Z ve ve = Ee - 2 OO ZZ, WR RZ, +z, OT) Equation (1.7.19) can be expressed in several ways, Using (1.7.17) and (1.7.18), (1.7.19) can be expressed in the form Vz = Vary Using (1.7.13) and (1.7.17), Vj ean be written as ~ VR, Z, be! Zi a, which is recognized as (1.7.14). In terms of incident and reflected voltages, the analysis of the circuit in 1.72, where Zi, = Z3 produces: V= V,) and Vz = 0 since there is no re- flected wave. Itis simple to verify that in Fig. 1.7.1a the current Fis zZ, Vy 2,42, 4nd the incident and reflected currents are 2R, and i= th, where I is the current reflection coefficient 50 Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 When the normalizing impedance Z, is real and positive, the expressions for the power waves a, and bare identical to the traveling waves a(x) and b(x). the In fact, when Z, is equal to a real and positive normalizing impedance Zo, relations derived for power waves are identical to those derived for trav. waves Specifically, for Z, real and equal to Z,, (1.7.1) and (1.7.2) are identical 0 (1.4.7)and (1.48), Also, Vand [in (1.7.11) and (1.7.12) are identical to V(x) and if) in (Al) and (142) Finally, Fy, aswell as Tvand Pare all equal to Th That i forZ, = Z3 = Zo Z, - Z, =r, - 2B Tyatpatye t= FSF From a mathematical point of view the relations of a(x) and b(x) as fune- tions of V(x) and I(x) are linear transformations such that V(x) and 1(x) follow from the inverse transformation, Similarly, the relations for dp and bp as func~ tions of Vand I [ve., (1.7.1) and (1.7.2)] are different linear transformations, ‘where their inverse transformations in (1.7.9) and (1.7.10) give Vand Jina one- port network. In the case of a two-port network, as shown in Fig, 1.73, we can define generalized scattering parameters (S, parameters), denoted by Spx, Spr Sz and Sm, in terms of power waves as follows: bp ~ Spudpa + Spretpe (1.7.20) Pg = Spaten * Spat (1.721) where / =Lw +z, 12) On = Ry (M+ al) (1.7.22) 1 Og = SE Vs + Pal 1723 _ (1.723) 1 —=(V, - Zt, 1.7.24) bn Rm aM (1728 ies > Z 4 “ & “ network “% a (Sp parameters) a 5 et be Os Figure 17.3. Two:port network representation in terms of generalized seatering parameters 00.1.7 Power Waves and Generalized Scattering Parameters 8 and bn = =, - Zh) (1.725) no TyR Mn BD 725) “The resistors R; and Rp are Ry = Re{Z;] and R: parameters depend on the terminal impedances are called the reference impedances. There is no way of directly measuring the generalized scattering parame- ters. For example, from (1.7.20) Re[Z:}. The values of the S, and Z:. These impedances Sn 2 Hence, Syu: can be determined if api and by; can be measured with aj2 = 0. In Fig. 1.7.4 the circuit in Fig. 17.3 is shown with E: = 0, the output voltage is V2= ~/Z),and from (1.7.23) it follows that a,» = 0. Unfortunately, ap: and bp are not traveling waves and, therefore, cannot be separated and measured us- ing a directional coupler. ‘The evaluation of Syu in Fig. 1.74 follows from (1.7.8); that is, Sy = SB (1.726) ‘The input power to the two-port network can be expressed as 1 1 7 Pay = 3 lel? — 3 [pil? = Pavs(l ~ Soul?) While the S, parameters cannot be measured, the S parameters of the two-port in Fig. 1.7.3 can be easily measured and the Sp parameters can be calculated in terms of the § parameters, Recall that the S parameters in a Z. system are measured by inserting transmission lines with characteristic imped ances Z, at both ports in Fig. 1.7.3, changing Z) and Z> to Z, (usually Zo = 50 Q),and taking the appropriate measurement of the traveling waves a1(x),a2(x), h i [ + Cy} 4 = Tworport % network wv | |e « ~~ (Sp parameters) = * 5 be Figure L7A. Two-port network with Es = 0. 5 Representations of Two-Port Networks Chap. 1 +b(x),and bo(x). The relations between the S, parameters and the S parameters are derived in Section 2.7. Power-gain expressions for the network in Fig. 1.7.4 are easily written in terms of S, parameters. For example, ap: = 0 in Fig. 1.7.4, and the power deliv- ered to the load Z2, denoted by P1,is = Fn |, bea = Soidy2 we can express P,, in the form PL ‘Since from (1.7.21), when ayo = “The power available from the source isa: therefore the transducer power gain lor the network in Fig. 174s given by (1727) Equation (1.7.27) gives the transducer power gain of a two-port network with arbitrary terminations Z, and Zc. Ifin Fig. 1.7.4 we let Z; = Z2 = Zo then it also follows from (1.6.22) that Gr = |Szil?, where Sx: is measured using the normalizing impedance Z,. In uthes words, for Z; ~ Z: = Zoi follows that Gr= |S? = [Sal? (1.7.28) Equation (1.7.28) expresses the fact that in a system where the S parame- ters are measured with 23 Z, the transducer power gain is simply Sx?. Since for Z; = Za = Ze power waves and traveling waves give identical results, it follows that the transducer power gain is also given by Syn For source and load impedances such that Z; # Z, and Zz # Zoit follows that Syn? + |Sai?. In Sections 2.6 and 2.7 we will learn that the gain Gr in Fig. 1.74 (as well 1s other power expressions) can be conveniently expressed in terms of Z:, Z2, ‘and the S parameters of the transistor measured in a Z, system. Generalized Scatt jing Matrix for m-Port Networks In the n-port network shown in Fig. 1.7.5 the normalizing incident and re- flected power waves are defined as (a,] $e) (vd + (Zu) (1.7.29) and fol = 51-1 v) - ZU 1.7.30)] see. 17 Power Wave and Generalized Setering Parameters zn f B® 2 yl 2, os se 2 wl b «® zy Le Figee 115. An eportntmork where apn bon % Pn (a1 = (6,1 = M Fon, Pon Zz, 0 0% = ° and Port network

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