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E5003 – Ship Structures I 29
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Topic 3: Longitudinal Strength: Buoyancy & Weight

the Iron Bridge

Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss still water bending moments, Bonjean curves,
Prohaska’s method to preliminarily estimate weight distributions.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Overview
Structural design starts from:

Principal Dimensions - L,B,T

Hull Form - CB, CWP, CM
General Arrangement – decks and bulkheads

Which is called preliminary design:

E5003 – Ship Structures I 30
© [Link] 2011-18

The first strength consideration is the longitudinal strength of the hull girder. The
hull girder feels vertical forces due to weight and buoyancy. For any floating body the
total weight must equal the total buoyancy, and both forces must act along the same
line of action. However, at each location along the ship, the weight will not normally
equal the buoyancy.

The weights are set by the combination of lightship and cargo weights. The locations
of the weights are fixed (more or less). The buoyancy forces are determined by the
shape of the hull and the location of the vessel in the water (draft and trim). The net
buoyancy will adjust itself until is exactly counteracts the net weight force. However,
this does not mean that each part of the vessel has a balance of weight and buoyancy.
Local segments of the vessel may have more or less weight than the local buoyancy.
The difference will be made up by a transfer of shear forces along the vessel.

Bending Moment Calculations

The ‘design’ bending moment is the combination of Stillwater bending and wave
bending. To calculate these values we will make the following assumptions;
• Ship is a beam
• Small deflection theory
• Response is quasi-static
• Lateral loading can be superimposed
E5003 – Ship Structures I 31
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Still Water Bending Moment (SWBM)

The still water bending moment is calculated from the effect of the weights and
buoyancy in calm water. The buoyancy force is a line load (e.g. kN/m). The local
buoyancy per meter is found from the x-sectional area of the hull at each location.
The x-sectional area depends on the local draft and are found from the ‘bonjean’
curves.

Bonjean Curves – Calculating the Buoyancy Distribution

Bonjean curves show the relationship between local draft and submerged cross-
sectional area. There is one bonjean curve for each station. There are typically 21
stations from the FP to the AP, with 0 being the FP. This divides the Lbp into 20
segments.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 32
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At each station we can draw a bonjean curve of the x-section area;

Bonjeans are drawn on the profile of the vessel. With these curves, we can find the
distribution of buoyancy for any waterline (any draft, any trim).

For hydrostatic calculations we need to know the distribution of buoyancy along the
ship. We need to be able to find this for every possible draft/trim. If we had a wall
sided vessel, it would be relatively easy to solve for the draft/trim (as in Assignment
#1). With shaped hulls, there is a non-linear relationship between buoyancy and
position. We use bonjean curves to find the buoyancies as follows.

For the typical 21 station ship, we divide the ship into 21 slices, each extending fore
and aft of its station. Using the bonjean curve for each station we calculate the total
displacement at our draft/trim;

20
𝐿𝐵𝑃
∇= ∑ (𝑎𝑖 (Ti ) ∗ ) [m3 ]
20
𝑖=0
E5003 – Ship Structures I 33
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For example, the displacement for station 3 is;

L BP
3  A 3  [m3]
20

The buoyant line load for station 3 is;

 3  3    g [N/m]

(assuming that area is in m2, g=9.81 m/s2 and  = 1025 kg/m3)

The above will provide a way of calculating the buoyant forces at each station. We
will now discuss the weights.

Calculating the Weight Distribution

We will discuss three methods for determining weighs.

If the weight distribution is known (even preliminarily), we use them directly. The
steps to follow are;
• Calculate the weight at each station (+- half station)
• (optionally) find the c.g. of weights for each segment
• (optionally) place the weights at the c.g.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 34
© [Link] 2011-18

If the weight distribution is unknown and we need to estimate the distribution, we

can use the Prohaska method. Prohaska proposed a method for a ship with parallel
middle body (i.e. most cargo vessels). The weight distribution is a trapezoid on top of
a uniform distribution, as follows;

The weights are distributed according to the pattern above. With the average
Whull
weight/meter of the hull : W  the values of a and b are ;
L

a b
W W
Tankers .75 1.125
Full Cargo Ships .55 1.225
Fine Cargo Ships .45 1.275
Large Passenger Ships .30 1.35
Note that the values of a and b are related, so that the average is W . This gives
b a
 1.5 
W 2W

To move the position of the center of weight (the lcg) the fore and aft ends of the load
diagram are adjusted by equal (and opposite) amounts.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 35
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7 lcg 54
lcg  x  L2 or, x
54 L2 7

If the weight distribution is unknown and we have a vessel without a parallel middle
body (i.e. most sail yachts), we need a smoother distribution. The method below uses
a parabolic distribution on top of a uniform distribution. The two parts each have half
the weight.

The equation for the weight is;

W 3 2x
W  W (1  (  1) 2 )
2 4 L

To shift the total center of weight by ‘x’ we shift the c.g. of the parabola by 2x. This is
done by ‘shearing’ the curve, so that the top center, ‘D’, shifts by 5x. All other points
shift proportionally.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 40
© [Link] 2011-18

Topic 4: Longitudinal Strength: Murray’s Method

Battleship TEXAS

Introduction
In this chapter we will discuss Murray’s Method to estimate still water bending
moments
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Murray’s Method
Murray’s method is based on the idea that forces and moments in a ship are self-
balancing (no net force or moment is transferred to the world). Any set of weight and
buoyancy forces are in balance.

Also, for any cut at x, the moment at the cut can be determined in two ways;
BM ( x)  y1 L1  y 2 L2

 y5 L5  y3 L3  y 4 L4
E5003 – Ship Structures I 41
© [Link] 2011-18

Murray applied this idea to a ship:

where
ff,fa are the distances from the to the centers of weight (fore and aft)
gf,ga are the distances from the to the centers of buoyancy (fore and aft)

The bending moment at midships is;

 Wa f a   a g a
or
Wf f f   f g f

These are two ‘estimates’ of the maximum bending moment. We can combine the two,
and increase our accuracy, by taking the average of the two;


1
Wa f a  W f f f   1  a g a   f g f 
2 2
 BM W  BM B
weight - buoyancy
To find the buoyancy part, Murray suggested

BM B 
1
 a g a   f g f   1   x
2 2
where x = average moment arm

Murray suggested a set of values for x , as a function of the ship length, block
coefficient and the ratio of draft to length;

x  L(a  CB  b)
E5003 – Ship Structures I 42
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where

T/L a b
.03 .209 .03
.04 .199 .041
.05 .189 .052
.06 .179 .063

This table for a and b can be represented adequately by the equation;

a = 0.239 – T/L
b = 1.1 T/L – 0.003

Example using Murray’s Method

Ship: Tanker L=278m, B=37m, CB=0.8

Assume wave bending moment is;

WBMsag = 583800 t-m
WBMhog = 520440 t-m

The vessel weights, and weight bending moments are as follows;

I TEM Weigh t lcg Mom en t
( t) (m) ( t -m )
Fwd
ca r go 62000 40 2480000
fu el & wa t er 590 116 68440
s t eel 12000 5 5 .6 667200
3 ,2 1 5 ,6 4 0
Aft
ca r go 49800 37 1842600
m a ch in er y 3400 125 425000
ou t fit 900 120 108000
s t eel 12000 5 5 .6 667200
 140690 t 3 ,0 4 2 ,8 0 0

BM w = 3 ,1 2 9 ,2 2 0

To find the buoyancy moment we need the draft;

W    CB  L  B  T  
E5003 – Ship Structures I 43
© [Link] 2011-18

 140690
T 
C B  L  B   0.8  278  37 1.025
 16.68 m

T 16.68
  0.06
L 278

Murray’s table gives;

a=0.179, b=0.063

x  278(.179  0.8  .063)  57.32 m

1
BM B  x
2
1
 140690  57.32  4,032,428 t-m
2

SWBM = BMW-BMB
hog sag
 3,129,220  4,032,428
 903,145 t-m (- is sag)

we need to add the wave bending moment in sag

Total BM = 903,145 + 583,800

= 1,486,945 t-m (sag)

Note that in this case the ship will never get in the hogging condition, because the
SWBM is so large.
E5003 – Ship Structures I 48
© [Link] 2011-18

Topic 5: Longitudinal Strength: Wave Bending Moments

Cape Spear

Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss the shape of ocean design waves and the moments
caused by waves.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Design Waves
Design wave forces are considered to be quasi-static. As a wave passes by a vessel,
the worst hogging moment will occur when the midbody is on the crest of a wave and
the bow and stern are in the troughs. The worst sagging moment will happen when
the bow and stern are on two crests, with the midbody in the trough between.

Whether for sagging or hogging, the worst condition will occur when the wavelength
is close to the vessel length. If the waves are much shorter,
E5003 – Ship Structures I 49
© [Link] 2011-18

or much longer than the vessel, the bending moments will be less than if the
wavelength equals the ship length.

Consequently, the design wave for any vessel will have a wavelength equal to the
vessel length. The wave height is also constrained. Waves will have a limited height
to length ratio, or they will break. This results in a standard design wave of L/20. In
other words the wave height (peak to trough) is 1/20th of the wave length.

Trochoidal Wave Profile

Note that the waves sketched above did not look like sinusoids. Waves at sea tend to
be trochoidal shaped, rather than simple sine waves. This has the feature that the
crests are steeper and the troughs are more rounded.

A trochoidal wave is constructed using a rolling wheel.

In the case of the design wave;

LW = LBP } for now we assume that this
HW = LBP/20 length and height or wave is
possible
We can see that;

LW = 2  R
HW = 2 r
E5003 – Ship Structures I 50
© [Link] 2011-18

Which gives;

L BP L
R  , r  BP
2 40

r 

R 20

To construct a plot of the wave, we start with a coordinate system at the crest of the
wave.

x  R   r sin  }  = rolling angle

z  r ( 1  cos  )

This is a parametric equation (  is a parameter). We can write;

L L
x   sin 
2 40
L
z  ( 1  cos  )
40
To plot the wave, it is a simple matter to calculate x and z as a function of  and then
plot z vs x. This is done in the spreadsheet below.

L 100
H 5

 x z
0 0 0
2
10 2.343657 -0.03798
20 4.700505 -0.15077
0
-2
z

30 7.083333 -0.33494
40 9.504142 -0.58489 -4
50 11.97378 -0.89303 -6
60 14.5016 -1.25 0 50 100 150 200
x
70 17.09521 -1.64495
80 19.7602 -2.06588
90 22.5 -2.5
100 25.31576 -2.93412
110 28.20632 -3.35505
120 31.16827 -3.75
E5003 – Ship Structures I 51
© [Link] 2011-18

1.1 L Wave
L/20 waves have been found to be too conservative for large vessels, esp. for vessels
>500 ft. A more modern version of the 1 . 1 L wave. In this case;

as before, LW = LBP

H w  1 . 1 L BP (in feet)
or
H w  0 . 607 L BP (in meters)

For trochoidal waves this gives;

L BP
R  , r  . 55 L BP (feet) or r  . 303 L BP (meters)
2

Calculating Wave Bending Moments

We can now calculate the wave bending moments by placing the ship on the design
wave. We can use the bonjean curves to determine the buoyancy forces due to the
quasi-static effects of the wave;

The steps to determine the wave bending moment are;

Obtain bonjeans
at each station determine the still water buoyancy forces, using the design draft.
Fisw = Aisw li g
at each station determine the total buoyancy forces, using the local draft in that
portion of the wave.
Fiwt = Aiwt li g
The net wave buoyancy forces are the difference between wave and still water.
Fiwave=Fiwt-Fisw
E5003 – Ship Structures I 52
© [Link] 2011-18

This gives us a set of station buoyancy forces due to the wave (net of still water).
These forces should be in equilibrium (no net vertical force). We can calculate the
moment at midships from either the net effect of all forces forward, or all forces aft
(the two moments will balance).

There are other ways to do this kind of calculation. 3D cad programs such as Rhino
can be used to find the still water and wave bending moments. Assuming that we
have a hull modeled in Rhino, we can find the still water buoyancy forces for the fore
and aft halves of the vessel by finding the volume and location of the centroids of the
two submerged volumes.
The procedure would be as follows;

1. Produce solid model of hull

2. Cut the model at both the centerline and waterlines.
3. Find the volumes and centroids of the two halves.
4. Calculate the buoyant moments about midships.

A similar procedure would determine the wave values. The only difference would be
the need to draw the trochoidal wave as a surface.

The example below shows use of Rhino to calculate the Buoyant BM for a large
vessel. The centroids of the two half volumes are shown.

BMB = 109,000 x 1.025 x 53.97 (m3 x t/m3 x m = t-m)

= 6,029,798 t-m
or
BMB = 123,000 x 1.025 x 58.58 (m3 x t/m3 x m = t-m)
= 7,385,473 t-m

average: BMB = 6,707,376 t-m (sag)

E5003 – Ship Structures I 53
© [Link] 2011-18

The difference between this and the weight moment (hog) will give the SWBM.

Rhino model, showing slices and centroids

Topic 5: Problems

5.1. Using a spreadsheet, plot the design trochoidal wave for a 250m vessel, for the L/20 wave.

5.2. Using a spreadsheet, plot the design trochoidal wave for a 250m vessel, for the 1.1 L.5
wave.
 Lecture 8: Wave Loads

8 Lecture 8
Wave Loads
The evaluation of structural responses is key element in ship design. Fundamental to this is the
determination of the wave loads to support the Rule requirements and for application in direct
calculations (Hirdaris et al. 2014). To date, the current design philosophy for the prediction of ship
motions and wave-induced loads has been driven by empirical or first-principles calculation
procedures based on well-proven applications such as ship motion prediction programs employing
the strip theory and panel method explained in Lecture 7. In recent years, the software, engineering
and computer technology available improved dramatically. Thus a trend that may utilize the latest
technologies to assess the design loads on new designs emerged. This lecture reviews some of the
key methods that may be used for the assessment of wave loads on ships.

8.1 Classification of wave loads

A prime category of static loads that involve hydrodynamic actions and are frequently used in the
structural analysis are still water loads. They may be attributed to (a) the variation of buoyancy
distribution along ship length and (b) the non - uniform longitudinal distribution of light and dead
weights (see Figure 8-1). The longitudinal uneven distribution of the net load causes vertical shear
and bending moment. Still water loads may be either sagging or hogging depending on the resultant
distribution of the net load.

Figure 8-1: Load, shear force and bending moment diagrams (Shama 2013)
Cargo weights have the largest impact on the bending moment and shear forces as they may vary
rapidly during loading, unloading and seaway operations. To avoid such risks the cargo should be
spread out and interspersed, rather than grouped, as the latter distribution causes high bending
moment and shear force, (see Figure 8-2). In similar fashion to vertical shear, when a ship hogs and
sags shear forces shall emerge in way of her longitudinal plane. The maximum longitudinal shear
force is at the neutral axis and decreases towards the deck and bottom ( see Figure 8-3).
88 © Spyridon Cheirdaris 2021, All rights reserved
Lecture 8: Wave Loads

Figure 8-2 Still water shear force and bending moment for various cargo distribution (Shama 2013).

Figure 8-3 Longitudinal shear forces (Shama 2013)

Slowly varying loads are bending moments and shear forces in seaway. Waves may cause high
variation in the buoyancy distribution throughout the ship length that significantly increases the
bending moment and shear force. The largest effect occurs when the ship is balanced on the peak of
a wave that has the same length as the ship with crest amidship. The crest at the amidship increases
the amidship buoyancy forces and leads to hogging vertical bending moments. On the other hand,
when the ship is on a wave trough amidship sagging vertical bending moments prevail (see Figure
8-4).

Figure 8-4 hogging and sagging condition in a regular wave

Horizontal bending around the ship’s vertical axis (say the Z-axis) occurs when the ship is in an
inclined condition due to rolling. This moment arises when the ship has a wave crest on one side that
phases a trough on the other side in oblique or beam seas. Based on engineering experience it is
noteworthy to mention that this type of moment for most small mono-hull ships is usually less than
20% of the vertical bending moment of most for large tankers and mega-containerships, it can rise
to as high as 50% of the vertical bending moment. Torsion becomes important in oblique seas where
the ship may be subject to opposite direction righting moments at her forward and aft parts. Ships
89 © Spyridon Cheirdaris 2021, All rights reserved
Lecture 8: Wave Loads

with large deck openings, like containerships and mega bulk carriers, can experience significant
torsion moments. Racking loads arise from ship rolling and they are of practical significant for shoe
box type hulls, i.e. ships without transverse bulkheads (e.g., ro-ro ships car ferries) or ships without
full depth transverse bulkheads at all. The deck tends to move laterally relative to the bottom, while
the side shell moves vertically relative to the other side as shown in Figure 8-6.

Figure 8-5 Torsion moment in oblique seas

Figure 8-6: Racking deformation (Hughes, 2010)

Rapidly varying loads have short periods and require a dynamic analysis to be estimated accurately.
For example, shipping of green seas on deck is an impact load that mostly affects the forecastle deck.
Panting originates by the variable external water pressure from waves which causes the shell plating
to bellow-in and bellow-out continually like a fashion. The pitching motion of the ship in waves highly
affects this type of load. Slamming loads originate from heaving and pitching motions. During
slamming events the forward vessel speed in a wave trough lead to emergence of the forward portion
of the vessel. Consequently, the ship experiences a severe hydrodynamic impact on water re - entry.
Slamming loads are rapid and intense and are usually accompanied by a loud booming or slamming
sound. They may be critical for monohull ships with large bow flare and broad stern but also influence
multihulls like catamarans (see Figure 8-7).

90 © Spyridon Cheirdaris 2021, All rights reserved

Lecture 8: Wave Loads

Figure 8-7 Types of ship slamming loads

8.2 Murray’s method

Murray's Method can be employed to estimate the longitudinal bending moment amidships which
arises when the ship is stabilized on a `Standard Wave'. Standard Wave means a wave with length
equals to the length of the ship (L) and height equals 0.607 L(meter), See Figure 8-8.

Figure 8-8 Standard wave (Barrass and Derrett 2011)

This method can be categorized as static analysis because it does not consider the dynamic load
components induced by the waves. The total bending moment can be divided into two parts namely
the still water bending moment and wave-induced bending moment. The wave-induced bending
moment is given as a function of ship breadth (B) and Length (L) as follows:

Mw = b ⋅ B ⋅ L2.5 × 10−3 tonnes metres (8-1)

where b is a constant based on the ship block coefficient Cb and whether the ship is sagging or
hogging. The values of b are given in Table 8-1.
Table 8-1 Murray’s coefficient ‘b’

If the still water bending moment is not available it can be obtained using the following
approximation
𝑊𝐹 +𝑊𝐴 𝑊
.𝑀𝑠 = 2
− 2
⋅ 𝐿𝐶𝐵 (8-2)

91 © Spyridon Cheirdaris 2021, All rights reserved

Lecture 8: Wave Loads

where W is the total ship weight, WF is the moment of the weight forward of amidships and WA is the
moment of the weight aft of amidships. The first term of equation (8-2) represents the mean weight
bending moment while the second term represents the mean buoyancy moment. If the mean weight
moment is greater than the mean buoyancy moment at amidships the ship hogs in still water (+ve
𝑀𝑠 ) and vice versa. The total bending moment from still water and waves can be obtained by
summing the still water bending moment 𝑀𝑠 and the wave bending moment M𝑤 when the ship sags
and/or hogs. In reality, apart from the static forces acting on the body when the ship is balanced on
a stationary wave, there is additional inertia component originates from the ship’s motion should be
added to the ship’s weight distribution, while the buoyancy distribution gets more complicated.
These motions generate outgoing waves causes oscillating pressures on the wetted hull surface;
integrating these pressures over the wetted surface yields the forces and moments acting on the ship
from waves. However, the simplification of Murray’s method still can be adopted to give an indication
of the maximum bending moment in waves.

8.3 Wave induced responses

The classification of wave loads into still water, slowly and rapidly varying respectively link with static,
quasi-static and dynamic responses. The evaluation of static response does not consider any wave
actions. In quasi-static analysis some motion effects are considered. In dynamic analysis the effects
of hydrodynamic actions and time variation of loads are considered. In those cases that vibratory
actions arising from waves may lead to local or global resonance phenomena associated with
slamming (leading for example to whipping) or springing specialist dynamic analysis accounting for
the influence of hydroelastic actions in the wave environment is recommended. Figure 8-9 illustrates
the topology of responses from global hull girder to local response. The following sections provide
an outline on the importance of linear and nonlinear hydrodynamic actions, flexible hull girder
dynamics (i.e. hydroelasticity effects)

92 © Spyridon Cheirdaris 2021, All rights reserved