RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz

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RDDM
Recherche Design Developpement Management


Turbomachinary Lecture Series


Module 04 Axial Flow Compressors [x]


Presented to - Prsent

Ecole Polytechnique

AER4270 Propulsion Aeronautique


01 J anuary 2011 01 J anvier 2011



Copyright Statement - Dclaration de copyright

This course handbook is mainly used as
reference material for lectures given at
Recherche Developpement Design
Management (RDDM) and at
educational institutions in Canada and
U.S.A. No part of this publication may
be reproduced, disclosed or distributed
without written authorization from
RDDM. Some figures and text used in
this volume are from the reference listed
in the module.


Ce manuel de cours est surtout utilis
comme la matire de rfrence pour les
confrences donnes Recherche
Developpement Design Management
(RDDM) et aux institutions ducatives
au Canada et U.S.A. Aucune partie de
cette publication ne peut tre reproduite,
rvle ou distribue sans autorisation
crite de RDDM. Quelques figures et
textes utilises dans ce volume sont de
la rfrence numre dans le module.

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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REFERENCES

[1] textbook, by David Gordon Wilson, sixth printing 1993
SUBJECT: The design of high-efficiency turbomachinery and gas turbines

[2] textbook, HIH Saravanamuttoo, GFC Rogers, H Cohen, 5
th
edition
SUBJECT: Gas Turbine Theory

[3] textbook, S.L. Dixon, 4
th
Edition
SUBJECT: Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery

[4] master thesis, Lund Univeristy, Niclas Falck, 2008
SUBJECT: Axial flow compressor mean line design

[5] NACA report 1368, J ames C. Emery, L. J oseph Herrig, J ohn R. Erwin, A. Richard Felix
SUBJECT: systematic two-dimensional cascade tests of NACA 65-series compressor blades at low
speeds

[x] RDDM internal memo
SUBJECT: Literature research - axial flow compressors

Table of Contents

REFERENCES................................................................................................................ 2
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 3
DISCUSSION Axial-flow compressor theory & flow physics ........................................ 3
o Rothalpy and Velocity Triangles........................................................................ 8
o Compressor Reaction....................................................................................... 8
o Stage loading coefficient [1, 3].......................................................................... 9
o Stage flow coefficient...................................................................................... 10
DISCUSSION Compressor surge & stalling............................................................... 10
DISCUSSION Compressor stage design................................................................... 13
o Estimating the number of compressor stages for a given pressure-ratio........ 14
o Work done factor [2, 3].................................................................................... 15
DISCUSSION Compressor blade design................................................................... 16
o Incidence angles............................................................................................. 17
o Deviation angles ............................................................................................. 17
o de Haller number.......................................................................................... 17
o Diffusion Factor and Diffusion Ratio................................................................ 18
DISCUSSION - Compressor loss modeling.................................................................. 19
o Reference incidence angle correlation [4]....................................................... 21
o Deviation angle correlation.............................................................................. 22
o Total loss......................................................................................................... 24
o Profile loss ...................................................................................................... 24
o End wall loss................................................................................................... 25
DISCUSSION Rules of thumb for compressor design................................................ 26
DISCUSSION Compressor blade stresses ................................................................ 27
DISCUSSION benchmarking compressor design...................................................... 29

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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INTRODUCTION

The axial flow compressor has the potential for both higher-pressure ratio and higher efficiency than the
centrifugal (radial-flow) compressor. The centrifugal compressor often consists of a single stage and it is
possible to obtain a higher-pressure rise over a single centrifugal compressor. Another major advantage
that axial-flow compressors have, especially for turbo-jet and turbo-fan engines, is that a much larger flow
rate is possible for a given frontal area. The axial-flow machine dominates the field for large powers, and
centrifugal compressors are restricted to the lower end of the power requirements where the flow is too
small to be handled efficiently by axial blade rows.

Through the decades, compressor aerodynamic research and development has resulted in a steady
increase in axial-flow compressor pressure ratio, with the effect of reducing the number of stages required
to produce those high pressure ratios. However, even though reducing the number of stages has the
benefit of decreasing overall engine weight for a specific performance, higher pressure ratios result in
high Mach numbers and large gas deflections in compressor stage blade rows.

The difficulties associated with the development of axial-flow compressors stems mainly from the
fundamentally different nature of the flow process compared to that in axial-flow turbines. Whereas in the
axial-flow turbine the flow relative to each blade row is accelerated, in the axial compressor the flow is
decelerated. It is widely known that although a fluid can be rapidly accelerated through a passage and
sustain a small or moderate loss in stagnation (total) pressure, the same is not true for a rapid
deceleration. In the latter case large pressure losses would arise as a result of severe stall caused by a
large adverse pressure gradient. So as to limit the total pressure losses during flow diffusion it is
necessary for the rate of deceleration and turning in the compressor blade passage to be severely
restricted. It is mainly because of these restrictions that axial-flow compressors need to have many
stages for a given pressure ratio compared to axial-flow turbines which need only a few [3].

Careful designs of axial-flow compressor blade rows are based on both aerodynamic theory and
experimental data. This is required not only to reduce the various losses that impact overall compressor
stage efficiency, but also to ensure a minimum of stalling issues that are prevalent in axial-flow
compressor designs.

Successful compressor designs are very much an art, and all the major engine manufacturers have
developed a body of knowledge that is kept proprietary for competitive reasons [2]. However, once in a
while, after a certain time period, one is able to gather information through publications, doctoral thesis,
patents, even news clipping about the various design aspects for compressors. A simple Internet search
can uncover valuable information that was once unavailable decades ago.

DISCUSSION Axial-flow compressor theory & flow physics

A compressor stage is defined as a rotor blade row (rotating circumferentially about a central access at a
specified RPM) followed by a stator blade row (which remains stationary). The working fluid is initially
accelerated by the rotor blades thus gaining energy, and then decelerated in the stator blade passages
wherein the kinetic energy is converted to static pressure. The flow is always subject to an adverse
pressure gradient. This adverse pressure gradient, developed during compression, limits the amount of
pressure rise that a single axial-flow compressor stage can provide. The higher the pressure ratio the
more difficult it becomes to design the axial-flow compressor.
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Rotor
Blades
Stator
Vanes
RPM
Rotor
Blades
Stator
Vanes
RPM

C
s
SS
PS

t
h
r
o
a
t
C
s
SS
PS

t
h
r
o
a
t

Figure 1 Rotor-Stator configuration of a compressor stage
Compressor blade row nomenclature
SS Suction Surface
PS Pressure Surface
S Pitch
C Chord
Stagger angle

All the power is absorbed in the compressor rotor. The stator merely transforms the kinetic energy to an
increase in static pressure with the stagnation (total) temperature remaining constant if we assume the
compression process to be adiabatic. The increase in stagnation (total) pressure is accomplished wholly
in the rotor. The stator and rotor will create stagnation (total) pressure losses due to fluid friction and
other loss creating flow mechanisms. There is a strong link and interdependence among the pressure
rise, the temperature rise, and the compressor blade shapes. To understand this link one must first
understand the impact of compressor velocity triangles. A typical axial-flow compressor velocity triangle is
shown below.
RPM
1
2
Rotor
V
absX1
o
1
V
a
b
s
1
V
a
b
s
T
1
U
V
r
e
l
T
1
V
r
e
l1
|
1
V
absX2
o
2
V
a
b
s
2
V
r
e
l
T
2
U
V
a
b
s
T
2
Vre
l2
|
2
3
4
Stator
o
4
V
absX4
V
a
b
s
4
V
a
b
s
T
4
RPM
1
2
Rotor
V
absX1
o
1
V
a
b
s
1
V
a
b
s
T
1
U
V
r
e
l
T
1
V
r
e
l1
|
1
V
absX2
o
2
V
a
b
s
2
V
r
e
l
T
2
U
V
a
b
s
T
2
Vre
l2
|
2
3
4
Stator
o
4
V
absX4
V
a
b
s
4
V
a
b
s
T
4

Figure 2 - Typical axial-flow compressor velocity triangles
The fluid enters the rotor with an absolute velocity V
abs1
with a flow angle from the axial of
1
. Combining
the absolute velocity with the blade speed U will give the relative velocity V
rel 1
and the relative inlet flow
RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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angle
1
with respect to the rotor. The mechanical energy from the rotating rotors will be transferred to
the working fluid, increasing the stagnation (total) temperature and stagnation (total) pressure. The
energy absorption will also increase the absolute velocity of the fluid. At the exit of the rotor, the fluid will
have a relative velocity of V
rel 2
and a relative exit flow angle of
2
. If there are no radial changes between
rotor exit and stator inlet, then it may be assumed that what exits the rotor remains the same as it enters
the stator. The fluid leaving the rotor is consequently the same fluid entering the stator rows (station 3
velocity vectors equals station 2 velocity vectors). Combining the relative exit velocity with the blade
speed U will give the absolute velocity V
abs3
and absolute flow angle
3
that enters the stator. The fluid
entering the stator will be further diffused and will leave the stator with an absolute velocity of V
abs4
and an
absolute flow angle of
4
.

NOTE 1: a so-called normal compressor stage is one where the absolute velocities and flow directions
at compressor stage outlet (station 4) are the same as at the compressor stage inlet (station 1) [3].

NOTE 2: If there are radial differences between the rotor exit (station 2) and stator inlet (station 3) then
the conservation of angular momentum is used to adjust the velocity vectors at station 3 from the velocity
vectors at station 2, as follows:

2 2 2 3 3 3 absT m absT m
V r m V r m =
2
3 3
2 2
3 absT
m
m
absT
V
r m
r m
V

=

The compression process consists of a series of diffusions, both in the rotor and the stator blade
passages; although the absolute velocity of the fluid is increased in the rotor, the relative velocity in the
rotor is decreased. Using the above velocity triangle nomenclature for a compressor stage, the power
input of a compressor is given by (assuming constant mass flow and gas properties) [2]

( )
1 2 O O p
T T C m Work =

( )
1 2
Work Specific
O O p o
T T C h
m
W
= A = =

01 02 1 2
T C T C h h h
p p O O O
= = A

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = A
2 2
2
1
1
2
2
2
abs
S
abs
S O
V
h
V
h h

The change of momentum between the flow entering and leaving the rotor can be used to calculate the
force on the rotor, and the equal and opposite forces on the fluid. There are three principal force
components:
o Axial
o Radial
o Tangential

The axial and radial force components cannot contribute to the work transfer between the working fluid
and the rotor. Only the tangential force can produce a change in enthalpy through work transfer.
o The tangential forces on the rotor due to the entering fluid and exiting fluid are
1
@
absT
V m Inlet Force Tangential =
2
@
absT
V m Exit Force Tangential =

o The torque produced is calculated by the distance from the central axis to radial position of the
rotor
( )
1 1
@
absT
V m r Inlet Torque = ( )
2 2
@
absT
V m r Exit Torque =

o The net torque on the rotor will be the difference between the torque produced by the entering
fluid and the torque produced by the exiting fluid
RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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( ) ( )
2 2 1 1 absT absT
V m r V m r NetTorque =

o The energy transfer will be the net torque and the speed at which the rotor is spinning

( ) ( ) | |
2 2 1 1 absT absT
V m r V m r Work sfer EnergyTran = = e

o We know that er =the rotor peripheral speed at the radius of the fluid entering or exiting the rotor.
If we let U
m
be equal to rotor mean radius speed er
m
then well get

( ) ( )
2 2 1 1 absT m absT m
V m U V m U Work sfer EnergyTran = =

2 2 1 1 absT m absT m O
V U V U h
m
Work
rk SpecificWo = A = =

The above equation is known as Eulers equation. Positive work means that work is delivered from the
turbomachine shaft (the turbine delivers the work rather than the compressor). We also use this equation
to calculate the energy transferred to the fluid by the by the compressor. A simple swap of the terms
handles this case.
1 1 2 2 absT absT O
V U V U h
m
Work
rk SpecificWo = A = =

Expanding V
absT
using basic trigonometry well get

( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
tan tan o o
absX m absX m O
V U V U h = A

We would like to cast h
o
in terms of the relative flow angles, because these angles will define the rotor
inlet and exit metal angles (if we use the assumption that the design point solution equals the rotor metal
angles). Using basic trigonometry and the velocity triangles, we will find that

( )
1 1 1 1
tan tan | o + =
absX m
V U ( )
2 2 2 2
tan tan | o + =
absX m
V U
1
1
1
1
tan tan | o =
absx
m
V
U

2
2
2
2
tan tan | o =
absx
m
V
U

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
= A
1
1
1
1 1 2
2
2
2 2
tan tan | |
absX
m
absX m
absX
m
absX m O
V
U
V U
V
U
V U h

1 1 1
2
1 2 2 2
2
2
tan tan | |
absX m m absX m m O
V U U V U U h + = A

( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
2
1
2
2
tan tan | |
absX m absX m m m O
V U V U U U h + = A

For a purely axial compressor, r
m1
=r
m2
then U
m2
=U
m1,
and if the inlet and exit area of the rotor

are
equivalent then V
absx1
=V
absx2
. Therefore h
O
for a purely axial compressor becomes

( )
2 1
tan tan | | = A
absX m O
V U h

Combining the following equations together well get

01 02 1 2
T C T C h h h
p p O O O
= = A and ( )
2 1
tan tan | | = A
absX m O
V U h

( )
2 1 01 02
tan tan | | =
absX m p p
V U T C T C
RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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( )
2 1 01 02
tan tan | | =
p
absX m
C
V U
T T
It can be seen from the above equations that to obtain a high temperature rise in a stage, which is
desirable to minimize the number of compressor stages for a given overall pressure ratio, the compressor
must combine the following characteristics:
1. High blade speed, either by RPM or blade mean radial location, such that the mid-height
compressor blade speed U
m
is high.
2. High axial velocity, which may be related to high mass flow or high Mach numbers
3. High fluid deflection, or camber, in the rotor blades

However, blade stresses will limit the allowable maximum blade speed, plus aerodynamic considerations
and the developed adverse pressure gradient will limit the mass flow rate and the camber (fluid
deflection) of the compressor blades.

The velocity triangles can be joined together in several different ways to help visualize the changes in
velocity entering and exiting the compressor rotor and stator. Two common methods are:
- Superimposed using the axial velocity as the datum. In doing so were assuming that the axial
velocity is constant throughout the compressor stage
- Or superimposed using the blade speed (U
m
) as the common datum. In doing so were assuming
that the inlet and exit blade speeds are equal, i.e. they are at the same radial location.

U
m
= constant
V
a
b
s
x
o
1
|
1
o
2 |
2
U
m
= constant
V
a
b
s
x
o
1
|
1
o
2 |
2
U
m
= constant
V
a
b
s
x
V
a
b
s
x
o
1
|
1
o
2
|
2
U
m
= constant
V
a
b
s
x
V
a
b
s
x
o
1
|
1
o
2
|
2

Figure 3 - Velocity Triangle Visualization

So far weve shown the impact of velocity triangles on temperature rise. But what about pressure rise?
Do we just assume the compression leads to a pressure rise because we just use the word
compression? Of course not, thats too simple. We do know however that temperatures and pressures
are directly related to each other. Using the adiabatic isentropic relationship P
S
/
S
together with
P
S
=
S
RT
S
well get the expression

1
1
2
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
O
O
O
O
P
P
T
T


So if we arrange the above equation as follows
( )
2 1
01
02
1
tan tan 1 | | =
|
|
.
|

\
|

p
absX m
O
C
V U
T
T
T

( )
2 1
1
1
2
1
tan tan 1 | |

=
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

p
absX m
O
O
O
C
V U
P
P
T
Knowing the compressor temperature rise will directly lead itself to knowing the pressure rise.
RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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o Rothalpy and Velocity Triangles
One of the more obscure assumptions employed, usually not well defined in gas turbine engine theory, is
the conservation of rothalpy. Rothalpy, I, is defined as follows:
2 2
2
1
2
1
, U T c U h I Rothalpy
orel p orel
= =
Since the inlet Rothalpy must equal the exit rothalpy for a rotor

EX
orel
IN
orel
U h U h
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

2 2
2
1
2
1


EX
orel p
IN
orel p
U T c U T c
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

2 2
2
1
2
1


( ) ( )
IN
orel p
EX
orel p
IN EX
T c T c U U =
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

2 2
2
1
2
1


( ) ( )
IN orel EX orel p IN EX
T T c U U

=
2 2
2
1

This conservation of rothalpy is the same for both compressors and turbines
o Compressor Reaction
Following the above velocity triangle nomenclature, for the case of incompressible and reversible flow it is
permissible to define the reaction of a compressor stage as the ratio of static pressure rise in the rotor to
the static pressure rise across the stage, or the static enthalpy rise in the rotor to the stagnation (total)
enthalpy rise through the compressor stage

1 4
1 2
P Stage
P Rotor
Reaction
S S
S S
static
static
P P
P P
R

=
A
A
= =

1 4
1 2
h Stage
h Rotor
Reaction
O O
S S
O
S
h h
h h
R

=
A
A
= =

If we assume that we have a normal compressor stage and that the axial velocity remains constant
across the compressor stage, we can write the reaction in terms of velocity-triangles as follows (derivation
not included):
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
tan tan
2
1
tan tan
2
1
Reaction | | | | | + = + =
m
absX
U
V


The reaction ratio is a design parameter that has an important influence on stage efficiency. Stages
having 50% reaction are widely used as the adverse pressure (retarding) gradient through the rotor and
stator rows is equally shared. This choice of reaction minimizes the tendency of the blade boundary
layers to separate from the solid surfaces, thus avoiding large stagnation (total) pressure losses [3].

o If reaction >50% then |
2
>o
1
and the velocity diagram is skewed towards the right. The static
enthalpy rise in the rotor exceeds that in the stator.

o If reaction =50% then |
2
=o
1
(or the rotor inlet angle equals the rotor outlet angle) and the velocity
triangle is symmetrical. The stage enthalpy rise is equally distributed between the rotor and
stator rows.

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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o If reaction <50% then |
2
<o
1
and the velocity diagram is skewed towards the left. The stator
enthalpy rise exceeds that in the rotor.

Reaction = 50% Reaction > 50% Reaction < 50% Reaction = 50% Reaction > 50% Reaction < 50%

Figure 4 - Impact of Reaction on Velocity Triangles

In axial turbines the limitation on stage work output is imposed by the rotor blade stresses. In axial
compressors, stage performance is limited by Mach number consideration. If Mach number effects could
be ignored, the permissible temperature rise (based on incompressible flow cascade limits) increases with
the amount of reaction. With a limit of 0.7 on the allowable Mach number, the temperature rise and
efficiency for axial-flow compressors are at a maximum with a reaction of 50 % [3].

But in practice a higher stage reaction is preferred. Increasing the stage reaction results in a decrease in
tangential velocity prior to the rotor. A smaller whirl will create a larger relative velocity to the rotor row
making it easier for the rotor to increase the static pressure [4].
o Stage loading coefficient [1, 3]
The total enthalpy rise through a rotor blade is expressed by the Euler equation. It is often useful to
introduce dimensionless stage performance parameters. One of those parameters is the stage loading
coefficient (or factor), also known as the work or temperature coefficient. This value is positive for
turbines and negative for compressors.

The stage loading coefficient is an important design parameter for a compressor stage rotor, and is one
that strongly affects the off-design performance characteristics. Its value can be determined from the
stage velocity diagram. In compressor stages a highly and lowly loaded stage would be as follows:
o Highly loaded >0.5
o Lowly loaded <0.3

1 1 2 2 absT m absT m O
V U V U h = A

2
1 1 2 2
2
m
absT m absT m
m
O
U
V U V U
U
h
=
A
=

2 2
m
O p
m
O
U
T c
U
h
A
=
A
=

Assuming that U
m
is constant at stations 1 and 2

m
absT absT
m
O
U
V V
U
h
1 2
2

=
A
=

Data from compressor cascade tests show that a design-point stage loading should be in the range of
0.3 to 0.4 for the most efficient operation, however substantial variations of can be expected at off-
design conditions.

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
Page 10 of 10
The stage loading coefficient alone is insufficient to specify the aerodynamic or boundary layer loading
on the compressor blade rows and for the inner & outer walls. With the same value of and a high or
low value of axial velocity, the required flow deflection through any blade row could be low or high,
respectively. We therefore need to define a second velocity-diagram dimensionless parameter known as
the stage flow coefficient [1].
o Stage flow coefficient
The stage flow coefficient, also known as the velocity coefficient, expresses the ratio between the
meridional (or axial velocity) and the blade rotational velocity. A high stage flow coefficient indicates a
high flow through the stage relative to the blade rotational velocity. Assuming a purely axial compressor

m
absX
m
m abs
U
V
U
V
= =

|

NOTE: V
absX
is directly linked the compressor stage mass flow rate and the stage area.

It can be shown that the stage loading is related to the stage flow coefficient by

( )
2 3
tan tan 1 | o | + = or ( )
2 1
tan tan | | | =

For a normal compressor, where o
4
=o
1
, well have
( )
2 1
tan tan 1 | o | + =
Where
- |
2
is the rotor relative flow exit angle
- o
4
is the stator absolute flow exit angle

Flow Coefficient =CxU
S
t
a
g
e

L
o
a
d
i
n
g

h
/
U
2
Id
e
a
l
(w
h
e
r
e

1, a
n
d

2 r
e
m
a
in
c
o
n
s
ta
n
t)
Actual
Stall as
Choke as
Flow Coefficient =CxU
S
t
a
g
e

L
o
a
d
i
n
g

h
/
U
2
Id
e
a
l
(w
h
e
r
e

1, a
n
d

2 r
e
m
a
in
c
o
n
s
ta
n
t)
Actual
Stall as
Choke as

Figure 5 - Interaction of Flow Coefficient and Stage Loading

DISCUSSION Compressor surge & stalling

An important part of compressor performance, as shown in a compressor map, is the limit to stable
operation called the surge line. This limit can be reached by reducing the mass flow while the rotational
speed is maintained. When a compressor goes into surge the effects are usually quite dramatic.
Generally an increase in noise level is experienced, indicative of a pulsation of the airflow and mechanical
RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
Page 11 of 11
vibration. Surge involves an axial oscillation of the total mass flow, a condition highly detrimental to
efficient compressor design [3].
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

R
a
t
i
o
m \T
T
/ P
T
RPM / \T
T
Islands of

COMP
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

R
a
t
i
o
m \T
T
/ P
T
RPM / \T
T
Islands of

COMP

Figure 6 - Typical compressor map

In a typical compressor it is normal that if the mass flow is reduced the pressure ratio increases. At a
certain point in an operating range the pressure rise is at its maximum. A further reduction in mass flow
will lead to an abrupt and definite change in flow pattern in the compressor. This change in flow pattern is
known as surge and can cause the flow to start oscillating backwards and forwards, and after a while the
compressor will break down. A mild version of surge causes the operating point to orbit around the point
of maximum pressure rise. An audible burble is a clear indicator when the compressor is on the limit of a
more severe surge [4].

Stalling arises when the difference between the flow direction and the blade angle becomes too
excessive. The fact that the pressure gradient is acting against the flow direction is always a danger to
compressor flow stability. Flow reversals may occur at off-design conditions of mass flow rates and
rotational speeds that are different from the design-point condition to which the compressor was
developed for.

If the mass flow is reduced the axial velocity will, according to the continuity equation, also decrease.
This will increase the air inlet angle and, due to the difference in air inlet angle and blade inlet angle, will
create flow incidence. With an increasing incidence angle the flow will eventually separate from the
surface at the trailing edge. The separation will grow with a further increase in incidence angle, and
finally cover the whole blade. Stall changes the performance characteristics of an axial-flow compressor
[4].

Two types of stall could be found in a compressor blade row:
- Blade stall
It is a two-dimensional type of stall where a significant part of the blade has a large wake leaving
the blade suction surface.

- Wall stall
It is a type of stall related to the boundary layer growth of the flow over the gas path surfaces.

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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Figure 7 Wall and Blade stall [3]
Rotating stall is a particular phenomenon of axial-flow compressors. Rotating stall is a mechanism that
allows the compressor to adapt to a mass flow that is too small. Instead of trying to share the limited flow
over the whole annulus, the flow is shared unequally such that some areas have a larger mass flow than
other areas.

When a rotor blade row reaches the stall point, the blades do not stall all together, but instead stall in
patches and these patches travel around the compressor annulus. These stall patches propagate from
blade to blade in the direction of rotation. The stall patch causes a partial obstruction to the flow that is
deflected on both sides of it. The incidence of the flow on to the blades on the right of the stall cell is
reduced. The incidence of the flow on the blades to the left of the stall cell is increased. As these blades
(those to the left and to the right) are already close to stalling, the effect is for the stall patch to move to
the left, and the motion is self-sustaining. Stall patches travelling around the blade rows load and
unload each blade at some frequency related to the speed and number of the stall patches. This
frequency may be close to a natural frequency of blade vibration, which will induce undue vibratory
stresses, and possible blade failure due to frequency resonance may occur.


Figure 8 stall cell propagation [3]
The cells always rotate in the direction of the rotor. Full-span cells extend axially through the whole
compressor while part-span cells can exist in a single blade row [4].
o Part-span cells very often rotate at close to 50% of the rotor speed
o Full-span cells usually rotate more slowly in the range of 20 to 40% of the rotor speed.


Figure 9 - Different types of rotating stall [4]
There is considerable freedom to choose the design value of stage flow: coefficient, particularly in those
cases where inlet Mach numbers is not a problem to be avoided. Compressor blades with the same de
Haller ratio but different stagger (setting) angles will have different design point characteristics and
different off-design characteristics.
- The high-work, high-flow, low stagger compressor blades tend to have a sharp stall, with a large
fall is pressure rise and possibly a hysteresis effect that makes recovery from stall more difficult

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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- The low-work, low-flow, high-stagger compressor blades tend to have an almost imperceptible
stall, and a stalled pressure rise higher than at design-point condition, with no drop off in pressure
differential at the stall itself.

Figure 10 - low vs high stagger compressor blades and stall characteristics [1]

DISCUSSION Compressor stage design

For assembly purposes, the rotor blades are fixed to the rotor drum (or shaft) and the stator blades are
fixed to the outer casing. The stator rows are not fixed to an inner ring as turbine stator rows. Instead,
they are only affixed from the outer rings creating stator hub clearances. In doing so, each compressor
stage rotor and stator can be assembled by stacking one-by-one the individual blade rows.

Stator
Hub clearance
Rotor
Hub clearance
Stator
Hub clearance
Rotor
Hub clearance

Figure 11- Assembly stacking of compressor blade rows
On some first stage axial-flow compressors, the first rotor row has an upstream row of inlet guide vanes
(IGV). These are not considered to be a part of the compressor stage and are treated differently. Their
function is quite different form the other compressor rotor or stator blade rows. The inlet guide vanes
direct flow away from the axial direction, and they act to accelerate the flow rather than diffuse it.
Functionally, inlet guide vanes are the same as turbine nozzles; they increase the kinetic energy of the
flow at the expense of pressure energy [3].

Inlet
Guide Vane
Inlet
Guide Vane

Figure 12 - Compressor stage with IGV
It is desirable to keep the axial velocity approximately constant throughout a multi-stage compressor.
With the flow density increasing as it progresses through the stages, it will be necessary to reduce the
flow area and hence the airfoil height. When the compressor is running at a lower speed than the design-
RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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point speed, the density in the rear stages will be far from the design value, resulting in incorrect axial
velocities which will cause blade stalling and compressor surge. There are various design methodologies
that can be used (individually or in combination) to overcome these problems, all of which result in
mechanical complexity:
- Use a multi-spool configuration
- Use of variable stator blades
- Use of blow-off valves

In the field of aircraft gas turbines the engine designer is more concerned with maximizing the work done
per stage while retaining an acceptable level of overall performance. Increased stage loading almost
inevitably leads to some aerodynamic constraint. This constraint will be increased Mach number,
possibly giving rise to shock-induced boundary layer separation or increased losses arising from poor
diffusion of the flow [3].
o Estimating the number of compressor stages for a given pressure-ratio
It is possible to apply the various equations, described in this module, to determine a preliminary number
of compressor stages for a given pressure-ratio. The procedure requires the calculation of pressure and
temperature changes for a single stage, and the stage exit conditions are then used for the next
compressor stage as the inlet conditions. This calculation is repeated for each stage in turn until the final
conditions are satisfied.

However, for compressors having identical stages it is more convenient to resort to a simple compressible
flow analysis [3]. The procedure is as follows:

1. Gather the list of requirements for
a. Required overall pressure-ratio
b. The compressor inlet temperature
c. Stage RPM
d. Stage reaction (assume as the same for all the stages)
e. U
m
, mean blade speed (assume as the same for all stages)
f. |, Flow coefficient (assume as the same for all the stages)
g. , Stage loading factor (assume as the same for all the stages)

2. Use the following equations to obtain the values for tan|
1
and tan|
2
as follows

( )
2 1
tan tan | | | =

( )
2 1
tan tan
2
1
Reaction | | | + =
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2
Reaction
tan
1
and
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2
Reaction
tan
2

3. Use the following equation to obtain the individual stage stagnation (total) temperature rise as
follows

2 2
m
O p
m
O
U
T c
U
h
A
=
A
=

4. Denoting the overall compressor inlet and outlet conditions as I and II use the following equation
to assess the number of compressor stages

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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c
OI
OII
OI
O STAGES
OI
OII
P
P
T
T N
T
T
q
1
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
A
+ =
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
A
=

1
1
c
OI
OII
O
OI
STAGES
P
P
T
T
N
q

It should be reminded that the above procedure is an overly simplified method to obtain a quick estimate
for the number of compressor stages required to obtain a particular overall pressure-ratio. Assuming
constant reaction, mean blade speed, stage loading, and flow coefficient across all the stages of a
compressor is an idealized design assumption.
o Work done factor [2, 3]
Because of the adverse pressure gradient in compressors, the boundary layers along the annulus walls
thicken as the flow progresses. The main effect is to reduce the area available for flow below the
geometric area of the annulus. This will have a considerable effect on the axial velocity through the
compressor and must be allowed for in the design process. The flow is extremely complex, with
successive accelerations and decelerations combined with changes in tangential flow direction [2].

The radial distribution of axial velocity is not constant across the annulus, but becomes peaky as the flow
proceeds, settling down to a fixed profile at about the fourth stage of a multi-stage compressor. Over the
central region of the blade, the axial velocity is higher than the average value. The mean blade section
(and most of the blade span) will, therefore, do less work than is estimated from the velocity triangles
based on the mean axial velocity [3].

Due to the influence of both end wall boundary layers and clearance vortices, the total work capacity of a
stage is decreased. This effect becomes more pronounced as the number of compressor stages is
increased. The reduction in work capacity can be accounted for empirically, as shown in the figure below,
with the work done factor , which is always a number less than 1.

0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
0 4 8 12 16 20
number of compressor stages
W
o
r
k

d
o
n
e

f
a
c
t
o
r

Figure 13 approximated work done factor

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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The work done factor can be applied to the stage loading coefficient as shown below, and the
estimation process mentioned above can be adjusted to reflect the change.

( )
2 1
tan tan | | | =

DISCUSSION Compressor blade design

Three types of compressor airfoil design can be used for different Mach numbers:
- Subsonic
For flows that are entirely subsonic, it has been found that the use of aerofoil section type blading
could be used to obtain high stage efficiencies. The need to pass higher mass flow rates at high
pressures increase the Mach numbers, which become especially critical at the tip of the first row
of rotor blades.

- Transonic
For transonic compressors, where the flow over part of the blade is supersonic, its been found
that the most effective blade shape consists of sections of circular arcs, often referred to
biconvex blading.

- Supersonic
For much higher Mach numbers, its been found that blade profiles based on parabolas become
more effective.

The choice of blade aspect ratio also has an impact on compressor design characteristics:
- Usage of high aspect ratio airfoil makes engines more compact in axial length.
- Usage of low aspect ratio airfoil in axial-flow compressors has high loading capabilities, high
efficiency, and a good performance range.

There have been three types of compressor blade designs that have been investigated, and data
recorded as performance maps, losses, or correlations. These blade types are the:
- National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, NACA 65-series compressor blades
- National Gas-Turbine Establishment, British C-series, C4 and C7 compressor blades
- Double Circular Arcs (DCA) (Source Unknown)

-20
0
20
0 20 40 60 80 100

Figure 14 - British C4 (solid) and C7 (dashed) compressor-blade base profiles

-20
0
20
0 20 40 60 80 100

Figure 15 - NACA 65-series compressor-blade base profile

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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-20
0
20
0 20 40 60 80 100

Figure 16 - Double Circular Arc
-20
0
20
0 20 40 60 80 100

Figure 17 - comparison of compressor-blade base profiles of
British C4 (solid), NACA 65-series (dashed), and DCA (middle solid)
o Incidence angles
The incidence angle is the difference between the inlet blade angle and the inlet flow angle. As the fluid
approaches the leading edge of a compressor airfoil it will experience an induced incidence.

Incidence is one of the pressure loss creating mechanisms found in axial-flow compressors.
o Deviation angles
The deviation angle is the difference between the exit blade angle and the exit flow angle. It arises from
a combination of two effects. Firstly the flow is decelerating on the suction surface and accelerating on
the pressure surface as it approaches the blade trailing edge. The result of this is that the streamlines
are diverging from the suction surface and converging towards the pressure surface so that the mean
(average) flow angle is less than the blade angle. This is an inviscid effect that increases in magnitude
with the rate of diffusion and acceleration towards the trailing edge. Secondly, the rapid boundary layer
growth on the suction surface towards the trailing edge pushes the streamline away from the surface,
contributing to the deviation [4].

The deviation angle is dependent on blade camber and stagger angle, making it difficult to predict.
o de Haller number
As mentioned before, in an axial-flow compressor stage both the rotor and stator are designed to diffuse
the flow. The flow kinetic energy is converted into an increase in the stage static enthalpy and the stage
static pressure. The more the fluid is decelerated the bigger is the pressure rise, and with the rise in
pressure is a rise in the adverse pressure gradient. Blade boundary layer growth and stall are the limiting
flow mechanisms on a compressor blade design.

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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A simple dimensionless parameter is used (suggested by Mr. de Haller a Swiss engineer) by the
compressor designer to choose an appropriate diffusion factor. This dimensionless parameter compares
the rotor relative velocity ratio and the stator absolute velocity ratio as follows

stator
abs
abs
rotor
rel
rel
V
V
V
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
3
4
1
2
, No. Haller de

Historically this value has been set to be more than 0.72 as an appropriate target. Lower values lead to
excessive losses. Because of its extreme simplicity the de Haller number is still used in preliminary
design work, but for final design calculations a criterion called the diffusion factor is preferred [2].
o Diffusion Factor and Diffusion Ratio
The air passing over a compressor blade will accelerate to a higher velocity on the suctions surface. In a
stationary row this will give rise to a drop in static pressure. On the pressure surface, the fluid will be
decelerated. The velocity distribution through the blade passage will be as shown below. The maximum
velocity on the suction surface will occur at around 10 to 15% of the blade chord from the leading edge,
and will then fall steadily until the outlet velocity is reached.

C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
o
r

B
l
a
d
e

s
u
r
f
a
c
e

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
Percent Chord
V
LE
V
TE
V
SS-max
Suction Surface
Pressure Surface SS
PS
0% 100%
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
o
r

B
l
a
d
e

s
u
r
f
a
c
e

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
Percent Chord
V
LE
V
TE
V
SS-max
Suction Surface
Pressure Surface SS
PS
0% 100%

Figure 18 - compressor cascade blade surface velocity distribution
The losses in a compressor blade row arise primarily from the growth of boundary layers on the suction
and pressure surfaces of the blade. These surface boundary layers come together at the blade trailing
edge to form a wake, giving rise to a local drop in the stagnation (total) pressure. Relatively thick surface
boundary layers, resulting in high losses, have been found to occur in regions where rapid changes of
velocity are occurring [2].

The blade loading is usually assessed by the diffusion factor, DF. This relates the peak velocity on the
suction surface of the blade to the velocity at the trailing edge. Values of diffusion factors in excess of 0.6
are thought to indicate blade stall and values of 0.45 might be taken as a typical design choice.

LE
TE SS
V
V V
DF

=
max


The diffusion ratio DR is that ratio between the maximum velocity and the outlet velocity

TE
SS
V
V
DR
max
=

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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NACA Diffusion Factor [2,4]
The derivation of the NACA diffusion factor is based on the establishment of the velocity gradient on the
suction surface in terms of V
LE
, V
TE
, and V
SS-max
in conjunction with results from cascade tests. From the
cascade tests it was deduced that the maximum velocity on the suction surface is

c
s V
V V
relT
LE SS
2
max
A
+ =

The above diffusion factor then becomes
LE
TE
LE
relT
LE
TE
relT
LE
LE
TE SS
V
V
c
s
V
V
V
V
c
s V
V
V
V V
DF

A
+ =

A
+
=

=

2
1
2 max

Liebleins equivalent Diffusion Ratio [3]
Liebleins correlation is based on the experimental observation that a large amount of velocity diffusion on
blade surfaces tends to produce thick boundary layers and eventual flow separations. Lieblein states the
general hypothesis that in the region of minimum loss, the wake thickness and consequently the
magnitude of the loss in total pressure is proportional to the diffusion in velocity on the suction surface of
the blade in that region. The hypothesis is based on the consideration that the boundary layer on the
suction surface of conventional compressor blades contributes the largest share of the blade wake.
Therefore the suction surface velocity distribution becomes the main factor in determining the pressure
loss [3].

Knowledge of the suction surface velocities before an actual design is difficult to predict. As this data
may not be available it is necessary to establish an equivalent diffusion ratio that approximates V
SS-
max
/
V
TE
.

( )
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ = =

2 1 1
2
2
1 max
eq
tan tan cos 61 . 0 12 . 1
cos
cos
DR o o o
o
o
c
s
V
V
TE
SS
[ref Wilson]

( )
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ = =

2 1 1
2
1
2 max
eq
tan tan cos 61 . 0 12 . 1
cos
cos
DR o o o
o
o
c
s
V
V
TE
SS
[ref Dixon]

( )
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ = =

1 2 1
2
1
2 max
eq
tan tan cos 61 . 0 12 . 1
cos
cos
DR | | |
|
|
c
s
V
V
TE
SS
[ref Falck]

WARNING: literature research has found 3 different representations for Liebleins DR
eq
equation.
Currently there is no consensus as to which is the correct equation to use. The equations are to be used
with caution.
Koch and Smith equivalent Diffusion Ratio
Koch & Smith further modified Liebleins equivalent diffusion ratio by including the impact due to
maximum thickness vs chord ratio (t
max
/c) and a parameter called the Axial Velocity Density ratio (AVDR).

NOTE: Their derivation has not yet been included in this literature research


DISCUSSION - Compressor loss modeling

The design of an axial-flow compressor of high performance involves three-dimensional high-speed flow
of compressible viscous gases through successive rows of closely spaced blades [5].

Various aspects of the problem have been treated theoretically, and the results of those studies are quite
useful in design calculations. All such studies, however, have been on idealized flow, with the effects of
RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
Page 20 of 20
one or more such physical realities as compressibility, finite blade spacing, and viscosity neglected.
Consideration of viscosity effects has been particularly difficult [5].

Some of the information required can be obtained only by experiment in single-stage and multi-stage
compressors. Much of the information, however, can be obtained more easily by isolating the effects of
each parameter for detailed measurement. The effects of inlet angle, blade shape, angle of attack, and
solidity on the turning angle and drag produced can be studied by tests of compressor blades in two-
dimensional cascades tunnels. Cascade tests can provide many basic data concerning the performance
of compressors under widely varying conditions of operation with relative ease, rapidly and at low cost. A
more refined procedure, however, would use cascade data not as the final answer, but as a broad base
from which to work out the three-dimensional relations [5].

The flow in a compressor is highly three-dimensional with many different loss (or entropy) creating flow
mechanisms that impact the overall efficiency of a compressor stage. It is these loss mechanisms that
the compressor designer will try to reduce to obtain both design-point and off-design performance
characteristics that will be beneficial to the overall SFC of the gas turbine engine. The image below
shows the various flow mechanisms that can be found in a compressor blade row, valid for both the rotor
and stator.

Figure 19 - Compressor flow mechanisms [4, original ref NA]

The various flow mechanisms in a compressor blade row are:
o Profile losses, or blade surface boundary layer loss
o Secondary losses; these could be considered to be general vortex flow losses or end wall losses
o Clearance losses; tip clearance loss for rotors and hub clearance loss for stators

When testing a given compressor cascade, at different inlet flow angles with fixed inlet blade angles, the
overall loss will vary with the flow incidence. There will be an increase in both positive and negative
incidence angles with a range of low values of loss. The reference incidence angle is that angle defined
to be within the half-range of incidence where the loss is twice the minimum loss value. Outside of this
range blade stall is said to occur.
Minimum
loss
2X Minimum
loss
L
o
s
s
incidence
reference
incidence
i / 2 i / 2
Minimum
loss
2X Minimum
loss
L
o
s
s
incidence
reference
incidence
i / 2 i / 2

Figure 20 - definition of reference incidence angle
RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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o Reference incidence angle correlation [4]
As mentioned above three types of compressor cascade airfoils have been analyzed: NACA 65-series,
British C-series, and DCA. A majority of the test data was based on a compressor blade with a maximum
thickness of 10% of the chord length. The reference incidences for these three types have been
correlated as follows [4]

u + = n i K K i
it sh ref 010


Where
- K
sh
is a compressor blade shape correction factor
- K
it
is a compressor blade thickness correction factor
- i
010
is the incidence angle based on a compressor blade with 10% thickness and zero camber
- n represents the incidence slope factor, in degrees
- u is the compressor blade camber angle, in degrees
-
1
is the relative inlet flow angle for the rotor and the absolute inlet flow angle for stators, in degrees

- K
sh
is defined to be
0.7 for DCA
1.0 for NACA 65-series
1.1 for British C-series

3
max
2
max max
5 . 312 3 . 122 17 . 19 0214 . 0 |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
c
t
c
t
c
t
K
it

2
1
4 5
1 010
10 38 . 2 10 64 . 1 0913 . 0 002364 . 0 0674 . 0 0325 . 0 o o |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ + |
.
|

\
|
=

s
c
x x
s
c
s
c
i
2
1
5 5
1
10 11 . 1 10 79 . 3 0029 . 0 0035 . 0 02274 . 0 063 . 0 o o |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ + |
.
|

\
|
=

s
c
x x
s
c
s
c
n

WARNING: the equations for i
010
and n from reference [4, Falcks thesis] do not coincide with the graphs
presented in the same reference. The equations are to be used with caution. The graphs have been
reproduced based on the above equations.

-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0

Figure 21 - i
010
at zero camber and 10% thickness for various solidity
RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0

Figure 22 - slope factor " n" for various solidity
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Figure 23 - Correction factor for maximum thickness, K
i t



o Deviation angle correlation
The deviation angle is dependent on blade camber and stagger angle, making it difficult to predict.

Methodology 1 Carters Rule
One of the earliest deviation rules, suggested Mr. Carter, is defined as follows

x
s
c
m
c
+ =
u
o
Where
- m
c
is an empirical function of stagger angle
- x is an experimental factor typically equal to 2

Methodology 2
The reference deviation angle is defined as follows; similar to the above mentioned reference incidence
angle correlation:
RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
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u o o + = m K K
sh ref 010 t

Where
- K
sh
is a compressor blade shape correction factor
- K
ot
is a compressor blade thickness correction factor
- o
010
is the deviation angle based on a compressor blade with 10% thickness and zero camber
- m represents the deviation slope factor, in degrees
- u is the compressor blade camber angle, in degrees
-
1
is the relative inlet flow angle for the rotor and the absolute inlet flow angle for stators, in degrees

- K
sh
is defined to be (same as for the reference incidence angle correlation)
0.7 for DCA
1.0 for NACA 65-series
1.1 for British C-series

2
max max

61 . 36 172 . 6 0142 . 0 |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ =
c
t
c
t
K
t

2
1 1 010
00076 . 0 0004 . 0 0186 . 0 0209 . 0 1057 . 0 0443 . 0 o o o |
.
|

\
|
+ + |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ =
s
c
s
c
s
c

b
s
c
m
m
|
.
|

\
|
=
Type Blade

3
1
6 2
1
5
1
3
10 3 . 1 10 221 . 4 10 538 . 2 9655 . 0 o o o

+ + = x x x b

Where m
Blade Type
is for the different compressor blade types mentioned

( )
1 1
4
series 65 NACA
1 . 0 0 . 1 10 33 . 3 17 . 0 o o =

x m

3
1
7 2
1
5
1
4
series C British DCA
10 16 . 3 10 32 . 1 10 4 . 7 249 . 0 o o o

+ + = = x x x m m

WARNING: the equations for o
010
and m from reference [4, Falcks thesis] do not coincide with the graphs
presented in the same reference. The equations are to be used with caution. The graphs have been
reproduced based on the above equations.

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0

Figure 24 -
010
at zero camber and 10% thickness for various solidity
RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
Page 24 of 24

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0

Figure 25- slope factor " m" for various solidity
NACA 65-seried (left), DCA & British C-series (right)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Figure 26 - Correction factor for maximum thickness, K
t


o Total loss
The total loss for a compressor cascade is defined to be the combination of the blade profile loss and the
end wall losses
Wall End Profile Loss Total + =

ew p TOTAL
e e e + =

1 1
2 1
1 1 S O
O O
S O
O
TOTAL
P P
P P
P P
P

A
= e
o Profile loss
The compressor blade profile loss correlation is based on a modified version of the two-dimensional low-
speed equation developed by Lieblein as follows.

( )
eq 2
2
2
DR , cos
2
1
LE
TE
LE
p
M function
V
V
= o e

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
Page 25 of 25
( )
eq 2
2
DR , cos
2
1
LE
TE
LE
p
M function
V
V
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
o e

( )
2
2
eq
cos
DR ,
2
o
e
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
TE
LE
LE
p
V
V
M function


NOTE: From the profile loss correlation for compressor cascade blades, we see that the de Haller
number has a role in the derivation.
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
LE
TE
stator
abs
abs
rotor
rel
rel
V
V
V
V
V
V
3
4
1
2
, No. Haller de

( )( )
2
2
eq
cos
No Haller de DR ,
2
o
e
LE
p
M f
=
where
- e
p
is the Profile Loss Coefficient
- V
LE
inlet velocity to the compressor blade
- V
TE
exit velocity from the compressor blade
- o
2
exit flow angle from the compressor blade
- M
LE
inlet Mach number
- DR
eq
equivalent diffusion factor

0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6
DReq
P
r
o
f
i
l
e

L
o
s
s

P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
MLE =1.0
MLE =0.7
MLE =0.3

Figure 27 Profile Loss Parameter wrt M
LE

o End wall loss
Based on numerous compressor data, the end wall loss has been correlated to be a function of the
following parameters
- End wall clearance ratio c/c =clearance/chord
- Blade aspect ratio h/c =span/chord
- Mean line loading
|
.
|

\
|
= F
c
function
V
V
c
h
TE
LE
ew
D ,
2
2
c
e

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
Page 26 of 26
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
F
c
function
V
V
c
h
TE
LE
ew
D ,
2
c
e

2
D ,
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
TE
LE
ew
V
V
c
h
F
c
function
c
e
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
Di ffusion Factor
E
n
d

w
a
l
l

L
o
s
s

P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
e/c =0.10
e/c =0.07
e/c =0.04
e/c =0.02
e/c =0.00

Figure 28 End wall Loss Parameter with respect to end wall Clearances

DISCUSSION Rules of thumb for compressor design

Throughout this module various axial-flow compressor stage and airfoil design criteria have been
described. Below is a summary of the main rules-of-thumb that can be employed in the preliminary
design of an axial-flow compressor.

Table 1- Some axial-flow compressor design ROT
Parameter Rule of Thumb
Compressor Stage Reaction 50%
Compressor Stage Loading, 0.3 s s 0.4
Work done factor, > 0.86,
stage count dependent
Allowable Mach number 0.7
De Haller No. > 0.72
Rotor tip
Relative Mach number
o s 0.9 if subsonic
o s 1.2 if transonic
Stator hub
Absolute Mach number
s 0.9

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
Page 27 of 27

DISCUSSION Compressor blade stresses

Compressor blades will develop internal stresses due to the centrifugal forces caused by the rotational
speeds. The blade stresses will be a function of:
- The rotational speed
- The blade material density
- And the length of the blade
The maximum centrifugal tensile stress, which occurs at the blade root, is given by

( )
}
=
t
r
r
b
ct
dr r a
a
2
max
e
o
Where
-
b
blade material density
- e Angular velocity
- a the cross sectional area of the blade at any radius
- r the radius of the blade section
And subscripts
- r the root radius
- t the tip radius

For simplicity, if we assume that the compressor blade cross sectional area is constant at a value a then
the maximum tensile stress will become

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
max
2 2
2
1
AN r r N
b r t b ct
t t o = =
Where
- N the rotational speed (RPM)
- A the annulus area

Assuming that the blade material is selected from the beginning, we can see from the above equation that
changing the rotational speed and/or the annulus area will have a direct impact on the blade stresses. It
is for this reason that the compressor or turbine designer will quote and keep track of the quantity of AN
2

as an indication of the stresses that the stress engineer will need to design for.

As shown in the figures below, there will be a compromise between the needs of the aerodynamicist
versus the needs of the structural designer.
- The aerodynamicist would want to create stages at high RPM and large annulus areas to
increase stage efficiency
- The structural designer would want to create stages at low RPM and small areas to reduce the
overall stresses on the blades and the rotor disks that they are attached to.

RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
Page 28 of 28
5000 7500 10000 12500 15000 17500 20000 22500 25000 27500 30000
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
2.1
AN2
RPM
A
r
e
a

[
m
e
t
e
r
s
]
1.75E+09-2.00E+09
1.50E+09-1.75E+09
1.25E+09-1.50E+09
1.00E+09-1.25E+09
7.50E+08-1.00E+09
5.00E+08-7.50E+08
2.50E+08-5.00E+08
0.00E+00-2.50E+08

5000 7500 10000 12500 15000 17500 20000 22500 25000 27500 30000
2170.0
2325.0
2480.0
2635.0
2790.0
2945.0
3100.0
3255.0
AN2
RPM
A
r
e
a

[
i
n
c
h
e
s
]
2.63E+12-3.00E+12
2.25E+12-2.63E+12
1.88E+12-2.25E+12
1.50E+12-1.88E+12
1.13E+12-1.50E+12
7.50E+11-1.13E+12
3.75E+11-7.50E+11
0.00E+00-3.75E+11

Figure 29 carpet plot of AN
2
(SI on top, Imperial on bottom)
The tip speed can be written as 2Nr
t
so the above equation can be rewritten as a function of (r
r
/r
t
)
normally referred to as the hub-tip ratio. It is immediately apparent that the centrifugal stress is
proportional to the square of the tip speed, and that a reduction of the hub-tip ratio increases the blade
stresses.
( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
max
1
2
1
t
r
t b ct
r
r
U o

In practice, the blade sectional area will be decreased with radius to relieve the blade root stresses and
the loading on the disc carrying the blades. A simple analytical expression can be deduced for a linear
variation of cross sectional area from root to tip. If the hub-tip ratio is b and the ratio of the cross-
sectional area at the tip to that at the root is d, the stress in a tapered blade is given by

( ) ( )
2 2
max
1
2
1
b K U
t b ct
= o
where [2]

s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

d
e
s
i
g
n
e
r
a
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
i
s
t
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

d
e
s
i
g
n
e
r
a
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
i
s
t
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

d
e
s
i
g
n
e
r
a
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
i
s
t
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

d
e
s
i
g
n
e
r
a
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
i
s
t
RDDM Turbomachinary Lecture Series Srie de Confrence du Reacture de Gaz
Page 29 of 29
( )( )
( )
(

=
2
2
1 3
2 1
1
b
b b d
K

Typical values of K would range from 0.55 to 0.65 for tapered blades.


DISCUSSION benchmarking compressor design

This section is to capture various compressor design geometry and parameter as to benchmark the
various equations mentioned throughout this module.

No. Of
Stages
Pressure
Ratio
Efficiency Stall
Margin
Blade
speed
Flow
rate
Aspect
ratio
Engine
5 12.1 81.9% 11% 457 m/s 192.5
kg/s/m2
1.2 1
st

stage
<1.0 last
3 stages
NA
1
st
stage
only
1.912 85.4% 11% 1.32 1
st

stage
US air
force

Company Engine Type No. of
shafts
Fan LP
Compressor
HP
Compressor
Rolls-Royce
[3, pg 139]
RB211
535E4
Turbo-
fan
3 1 fan rotor
no boost
6 stages
with IGV
6 stages



END OF / FIN DE MODULE