t liescers @ Overview Ae eaten mc train aca ret ut ia See Sar CL ee kOe un LeU) Catt re UCU Re eA aod CA Lela} Ca Ao) Sar) Senin) Boom 1 v * Mainly GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit) satellites Baga d ee arene eg Detar loas * Atlantic Ocean Region (AOR) Pee eukerer an (el) Oa eitkeler Un ne) eee) * Coverage regions overlap ~ ensures global connectivity SoM ral) Dee Oo cee ete Uo ee + 240 telephone calls / 1 TV channel Cee) BSP bes Reems uit Ca AL nL fe lar ecol ual lately Cease @ Applications of Intelsat . e Data transfer Cease ig Saeco Tey ¢ Television Broadcasting Se eae CET Molle alte 1tolty Be ee oo CMe eC ea ae Cer ene sm CECE Nes) Ciel Wc Reolala Leia 2 OR une ae oUee Merced Cees a ened ¢ Aeronautical CommunicationCESS ToS Al Se aod ORAS ea Canc Nu Relea Ora nee Une eR seer OM eee ae Ree aE aero CRN cisco PR Rei OMe tater) Saranac ey Sat cers OM cesta Recta at ee Saad ec aN ree ecm ania) @ Evolution of Inmarsat * 1st Generation: leased satellites (MARISAT, INTELSAT) © 2nd Generation: 4 satellites (INMARSAT 2F1, 2F2, 2F3, 2F4) * 3rd Generation: 5 satellites (INMARSAT 3F1, 3F2, 3F3, 3F4, 3F5) SRC Le ee CA Ua) Set orem DUES aii) @ 1. Space Segment Cee ee eee see ol Ceri oli 1+ ened Cerne Selena Cee ene ean ng mlaol uk ece lak (ola (0139) Ce ole Ole Ue [ole 9) * Coverage overlap > ensures global connectivity OU ead oI as ure Oe CemsSARS teh ig Sees See eed eleanor ovryD) Clea eure cee US) ) © Gateways are called: Pane ne Dy esd er ee i gue eae ay * GES (Ground Earth Station) — aeronautical community Pee neg Peer enna Ms ec ae Pee cen Ken a cos * Monitors and controls entire network (MES, LES, satellites) * Satellite Control Centres (SCC): Pee eee eke SEM ese a else Sen} Cette ated Sere er eect) aeons a Cece ncn OMS airy Sede Ly Cee a era ee CMU renkelra © Downlink: 4 GHz Cell ca Smeal = Uplink: 1.6 GHz Ser me Rca @ Applications rae hecres Saree olay Serene Rcnn ag en tree Pee Peele Ree elo Scrat tenet ate vSES Cea See Cun CnC) Pee NAPS een kerk OSM a s(0) Sees ee as eae are oe aur at * Mainly GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit) satellites Participating Organizations Datos * Department of Space (DOS) * Department of Telecommunications (DOT) * Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) One eX) oe ea) INSAT Prograr Tela SUES CE Regions Covered by INSAT CRN ae aU eta * INSAT-2 series: INSAT-2A, 2B, 2C, 2D ‘India (entire country) OMe oa NEE) MeL ele Se Do) © INSAT-4 series: INSAT-4A, 4B, AC * Indian subcontinent and surrounding countries CaCl) ace Seen Applications OMe oy Case) Pelee) Colt a 5 Re era ead See Cent siceetestiy % is fi a Oar ctes Cele Eco Meee ely ee ete) OR eee ete eu ce g Disaster warning and managementDervakion of Zink Eguakorn (Frii!s transmission Eguatiess) Me OT Mikome Ro mde. fem be ees cal hee dotropic branseiitter, bras m bing | pewee PW the Flux sem us given a, d Pe AN R? WwW (nk —€ = Real omens, ona clivectional Ne ras 0. go P(e) 6) — COE we PLE) power -radisked a divection: P% unk onyle Po blal power rodiahed -o the ere tans reac fet te gas be oe HP, wilted power ee Ey & become ES Ee & by AAR? p & » Palle effeciue ‘sabropically Peel power CEIRP ) for mec eing ambinng wth eae re AC Mica ed power te = ExAIsotropic source EIRP = P, watts oO Distance R m Flux density F watts/m Isotropic source EIRP = P,G, watts o-_, — Incident flux density F watts/m? Receiver — Receiving antenna with Area A m®, gain G,Satellite EIRP P,G, Loss Lta Path Loss Lp Earth station Atmosphere Antenna gain G, Loss L Receiver Power P, Loss Lig LNAExample 4.1 A satellite at a distance of 40000 km from a point on the earth’s surface radiates a power of 10 W from an antenna with a gain of 17 dB in the direction of the observer. Find the flux density at the receiving point, and the power received by an earth station antenna at this point with an effective area of 10m?. Answer Using Eq. (4.3) F = P,G,/(4nR’) = 10 x 50/[4m x (4x 10’)"] = 2.49 x 107! The power received with an effective collecting area of 10 m? is therefore P, = 249x107 PW The calculation is more easily handled using decibels. Noting that 10 logy 4n=11.0dB F in dB units = 10 logy (P,G,) — 20 logy (R) — 11.0 = 27.0 = 152.0 = 11.0 = -136.0 dBW/m? Then P, = F ABW/m* +A, dBm? P, = =136.0 + 10.0 = —126 dBW or — 96 dBm Here we have put the antenna effective area into decibels greater than 1m? (10 m? = 10dB greater than 1 m2) and also given the answer in dBW and dBm, deci- bels above 1 watt and 1 milliwatt. Example 4.2 The satellite in Example 4.1 operates at a frequency of 11 GHz. The receiving antenna has a gain of 52.3 dB. Find the received power at the earth station in dBW and dBm. It is common practice to quote transmit power in dBW and received power in dBm. Answer Using Eq. (4.10) and working in decibels P, = EIRP + G, — path loss dBW EIRP = 27.0 dBW G, =52.3dB Path loss Ly = (42R/4)? = 20 logy (4#R/4) dB = 20 log, o[(4a x 4.x 10’) /(2.727 x 10-?)] = 205.3 dB P, = 27.0 + 52.3 — 205.3 = —126.0 dBW ‘The received power in dBm units is numerically 30 dB greater than in dBW. Hence P, = 126.0 + 30 96.0 dBmThe various noise sources at a satellite receiver are econ Oe ee cen Se anette koss One iad * Caused by absorption and emission from gases (oxygen, water vapor) and rain. ora Col * Noise from outer space sources like the sun and galaxies. Seon * Interference from human activities (electrical equipment, industrial sources) © Receiver (internal) noise Cees ee Eee Tew Cee Te cee acs Cee eran) cM is Cuan kek Kea Rola aS System Noise Temperature and G/T Ratio * At microwave frequencies, a black body with a_ physical temperature, 7p degrees kelvin generates electrical noise over a wide bandwidth. The noise power is given by P, =KT;B, watts where = Boltzmann's constant = 1.39 x 10~ T= physical temperature of source in kelvin degrees noise bandwidth in which the noise power is measured, in hertz ‘S No Me mye BPN Ces Be al Be rs See ene nace Re KCurs System noise temperature, T;: T, is the noise temperature of a noise source located at the input of a noiseless receiver, which gives the same noise power as the original receiver, measured at the output of the receiver. If the overall end-to-end gain of the receiver is G,, (G,, is a ratio, not in decibels) and its narrowest bandwidth is B, Hz, the noise power at the demodulator input is Pag = KT By Gey, watts (4.14a) no where G,, is the gain of the receiver from RE input to demodulator input.The noise power referred to the input of the receiver is P,, where P, = kT.B, watts (4.14b) Let the antenna deliver a signal power P, watts to the receiver RF input. The signal power at the demodulator input is P, G,,, watts, representing the power contained in the carrier and sidebands after amplification and frequency conversion within the receiver. Hence, the carrier to noise ratio (CNR) at the demodulator is given by C__ PGix P, N” KEB,G,, TB, (4.15) 4.3.3 Noise Figure and Noise Temperature Noise figure is frequently used to specify the noise generated within a device. The oper- ational noise figure is defined by the following formula (Krauss et al. 1980, p. 26) F = (SNR)in/(SNR)out (4.28) where (SNR)jn is the SNR at the input to the device and (SNR) our is the SNR at the out- put of the device. Because noise temperature is more useful in satellite communication systems, it is best to convert noise figure to noise temperature, T,,. The relationship is Ty = To(NF — 1) K (4.24) where the noise figure is a linear ratio, not in decibels and where T, is the reference temperature used to calculate the standard noise figure — usually 290 K. NF is frequently given in decibels and must be converted to a ratio before being used in Eq. (4.24). Table 4.4 gives a comparison between noise figure and noise temperature over the range encountered in typical systems. 4.3.4 G/T Ratio for Earth Stations The link equation can be rewritten in terms of CNR at the earth station Cc _[PGG, [4] = PG, (A) Gs (4.25) N [kT.B, | l4xR kB, | l4xR) | T, Thus CNR « G,/T,, and the terms in the square brackets are all constants for a given satellite system. The ratio G,/T,, which is usually quoted as simply G/T in decibels with units dBK~!, can be used to specify the quality of a receiving earth station or a satellite receiving system, since increasing G,/T, increases the received CNR.4.3.2 Calculation of System Noise Temperature Noiseless RF Noiseless Noiseless IF amplifier mixer amplifier Tn Gain Gain Gain | Po (=) Gre Gp Gr (1) Ce) " Equivalent noise sources KTpBy KT By An, Sim" Py = Gir Gm G += Gy Gg | AEBS +kBy (a 7) Tin Tr = GmGie Gre KBy |Tre + Tint G+ watts (4.17) RE Gm Gre Noiseless. Figure 4.7b Noise model of receiver with a single receiver noise source T,, the system noise temperature, at the -_ input to a noiseless receiver with identical gain to Gain Pp, _ the receiver in Figure 4.7a Gar. Gm Ge ——> kB, Ty = kB, [z +7, +a F | wats (4.19) in Ty = KBy | Tre + Tin + G Gar Guy Gpe Hence the equivalent noise source in Figure 4.7b has a system noise temperature T, where (4.20) ))! * Figure (c) is an alternative configuration to Figure (b) with a single equivalent noise source with noise temperature T,. at the output of the receiver. Tho = Tp(1 - G) K 7e * where G, is the linear gain (less than unity, L not in decibels) of the attenuating device or (hese) medium, and Tp is the physical temperature \ Te in degrees kelvin of the device or medium. For an attenuation of A dB, the value of G, is given by G _ 10-A/10 “ Figure (c)Example 4.5 Earth Station G/T Ratio An earth station antenna has a diameter of 30 m with an aperture efficiency of 68% and is used to receive a signal at 4150 MHz. At this frequency, the system noise temperature is 60 K when the antenna points at the satellite at an elevation angle of 28°. What is the earth station G/T ratio under these conditions? If heavy rain causes the sky temperature to increase so that the system noise temperature rises to 88 K, what isthe new G/T value? Answer First calculate the antenna gain. For a circular aperture G, = ny A/2? = ng(xD/A)? At 4150 MHz, A = 0.0723m. Then G = 0.68 x (30/0.0723)? = 1.16 x 10° or 60.6 dB Converting 7, into dBK T, = 10log,)60 = 17.8 dBK G/T = 60.6 — 17.8 = 42.8 dBK If Z, = 88 Kin heavy rain S = 606 — 19.4 = 41.2 eB/K, T eas b) An LNA is connected to a receiver which has a noise figure of 12 dB. The gain (4) of the LNA is 40 dB and its noise temperature is 120 K. Calculate the overall noise temperature referred to the LNA input. BS Re eee mel Be CoM RC CLO T, =(F-1)T Where Ty = 290 K, and F = 10/19 — 101 T, = (1077/1 — 1) x 290 Ser Pe acc Cae non g LNA gain G = 10/10 — 104 SEE Rac Ps ee bed Pe OUS See ee CaP eee Fe = 120 + 0.43 © 120.43 Kprs Tie Mel MAL a0 ei OMe een Ut aut eck Ret acct Ranh ete ie ee Cae COU ua OMe aera ca OSE ce ard Ce ese a * All quantities are expressed in decibels (dB), making calculations easier using addition and subtraction Worst Case Scenario for Link Budget ea a ele CRN eel Rel UCR Ce ee OR Cure ua ea Cena tu Peete tral eRe ate td Ort eee eteteeelCt } * Signal strength is typically 3 dB lower than at beam center. See na * Longest distance between satellite and earth station ~+ higher path loss. Cera te OSG eee ae eae ame eae SUE ue tai od OMe eee a eee UTE cual SM RC iy Peet + Signal attenuation (loss of power) OR eeu rt Sn ae) RI sre tlese Reece Re ld Meee a ele cree (oN ales le ciem LINK MARGIN * The key result from a link budget is a quantity known as the link margin. This is the difference between the actual received power and the required received power in decibels. For example, we have a downlink CNR of 16 dB in clear air, giving a Jink margin of 6.5 dB over the minimum CNR allowed of 9.5 dB. This link margin is available in clear air conditions, but will be reduced when there is rain in the slant path4.5.2 Effect of Rain on Direct to Home Satellite TV Ku-Band Downlink The first step is to determine the total path attenuation, A,,.q) in dB, which is the sum of the clear sky path attenuation due to atmospheric gaseous absorption, A,, and attenua- tion due to rain, Ayain Avotal = Aca + Arain 1B (4.29) The sky noise temperature resulting from a path attenuation Ayia, dB is found from the output noise model of Section 4.3 using an assumed medium temperature of 270K for the rain. Tey = 270 x (1 — 1074/1) K (4.30) The antenna noise temperature may be assumed to be equal to the sky noise temper- ature, although in practice not all of the incident noise energy from the sky is output by the antenna, and a coupling coefficient, 1¢, of 90-95% is sometimes used when cal- culating antenna noise temperature in rain, Thus antenna noise temperature may be calculated as Ty = 1X Tay K (431) Almost all satellite receivers use a high gain LNA as the first element in the receiver front end. This makes the contribution of all later parts of the receiver to the system. noise temperature negligible. System noise temperature is then given by Train where Ts eain = Tina + Ta cain K (4.32) In Eq. (4.32), the LNA is assumed to be placed right at the feed horn so that there is no waveguide or coaxial cable run between the feed horn of the antenna and the LNA. We will assume that there are no feed losses. The increase in noise power, AN sain ABs caused by the increase in sky noise temperature is given by ATs cain Bn “BEE? | = 10 logo Ty rain AN jain = 10 log, aB (4.33) where T,., is the system noise temperature in clear sky conditions. The received power is reduced by the attenuation caused by the rain in the slant path, so in rain the value of carrier power is reduced from Cyy to Cygin Where dB (4.34) Crain = Coa — Arain The resulting (CNR)gy ain Value when rain intersects the downlink is given by (CNR) ain gain = (CNR)an ca ~ Arain ~ AN ain AB (4.35) where (CNR)4u ca is the downlink CNR in clear sky conditions. Ifa linear (bent pipe) transponder is used, the (CNR),, must be combined with (CNR)an rain to yield the overall (CNR), ratio for the link. However, the transmitting earth stations for DBS-TV service use large antennas and high power transmitters with ulator. In this case the value of (CNR)qy jain Will be used as the overall (CNR), value in rain for the link.Combining Uplink and Downlink Carrier to Noise Ratios * When more than one CNR is present in the link, we can add the individual CNRs reciprocally to obtain an overall CNR, which we will denote here as (CNR),. The overall (CNR), is measured in the earth station at the output of the IF amplifier, is given by se (442) (CNR, = 1/(CNR) + 1/(CNR), + 1/(CNR)3 + This is sometimes referred to as the reciprocal CNR formula. The CNR values must be linear ratios, NOT decibel values. Since the noise power in the individual CNRs is referenced to the carrier power at that point, all the C values in the above Eq. are the same. Expanding the formula by cross multiplying gives the overall (CNR)o as a power ratio, not in decibels (CNR), = 1/(N/C+M4/C+N,/C+ )= CHUN +N 40,4») © Ifthe CNR values are equal, (CNR), is 3 dB lower than either value. © Ifone CNR value is 10 dB smaller than the other value, (CNR), is 0.44B lower than the smaller of the CNR values. ® If one CNR value is 20dB or more greater than the other CNR value, the overall (CNR), is equal to the smaller of the two CNR values within the accuracy of deci- bel calculations (0.1 dB). The effect of a change in the uplink CNR has a different impact on overall (CNR), depending on the operating mode and gain of the transponder. There are three different transponder types or operating modes: Linear transponder: Poy: = Pin + Gyp ABW. Non-linear transponder: Poyt = Pin + Gey — AG ABW Regenerative transponder: P,,,, = constant dBW (4.45) where P;,, is the power delivered by the satellite's receiving antenna to the input of the transponder, P,,; is the power delivered by the transponder HPA to the input of the satellite’s transmitting antenna, Gy is the linear gain of the transponder, and all param- eters are in decibel units. The parameter AG is dependent on P,,, and accounts for the loss of gain caused by the non-linear saturation characteristics of a transponder, which is driven hard to obtain close to its maximum output power — the gain is effectively falling as the input power level increases. (See Chapter 6 for a detailed discussion ofSimplified Steps . Choose frequency band © Select suitable band (C, Ku, Ka). . Collect satellite parameters ¢ Use given data or estimate unknown values. RS ee) ¢ Define transmitter and receiver characteristics. Meo ELM Lae ie ¢ Find signal and noise for uplink. . Find transponder output power « Based on gain or backoff. eon do aa es ¢ Evaluate for worst case (edge of coverage). . Find overall performance ¢ Calculate SNR or BER and link margin. Pen ae amr LTC y Celi) oF 1k RO) oval ite Coe . Consider propagation effects ¢ Include rain, atmosphere, and outage time. . Optimize design Adjust parameters until acceptable performance 1s achieved.