ELECRONICS COURSE

Dr. Abderrezak Med Zaki

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Chapter 1: Basics of the Physics of Semiconductor
Materials

1. Semiconductors
1.1 General Information
1.2 Intrinsic Semiconductor
1.3 Extrinsic Semiconductor (P and N)
1.4 Non-Polarized PN Junction
1.5 Polarized PN Junction 3.
2. The junction Diode
3. The Zener Diode

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 Chapter 1: Basics of the Physics of Semiconductor
Materials

Introduction.
▪ A semiconductor is a material whose electrical conductivity is between a conductor (like copper) and an
insulator (like glass). Generally, Its conductivity is ranges from 10−3/Ω.cm and 103 /Ω.cm

Un semi-conducteur est un matériau dont la conductivité électrique se situe entre celle d'un conducteur
(comme le cuivre) et celle d'un isolant (comme le verre). Sa conductivité se situe généralement entre
10−3/Ω.cm et 103 /Ωcm.

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▪ Unlike metals, the conductivity of a semiconductor is not constant. It depends on
several important factors, such as:
➢ Temperature.
➢ The presence of impurities (doping).
➢ illumination (light exposure).

Contrairement aux métaux, la conductivité d'un semi-conducteur n'est pas constante. Elle dépend de
plusieurs facteurs importants, tels que:
➢ La température.
➢ La présence d’impuretés (dopage)
➢ La lumière

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▪ These properties make semiconductors very useful in the manufacturing of electronic
components such as diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits.
In this chapter, we present the basic physical concepts needed to understand how
semiconductor-based components work.

▪ Ces propriétés rendent les semi-conducteurs très utiles dans la fabrication de composants
électroniques tels que les diodes, les transistors et les circuits intégrés.
Dans ce chapitre, nous présentons les concepts physiques fondamentaux nécessaires à la
compréhension du fonctionnement des composants à base de semi-conducteurs.

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I. Electrical materials
▪ In electrical engineering, the materials used are classified into 3 groups; this classification
depends on the resistivity 𝝆 of the material.
A- Conductors : There are normally metals with resistivity ranging from 10-7 Ω.m to 10-8 Ωm.
Electrical conduction is ensured by electrons.
Example : Aluminum 2,75. 10-8 Ω.m, Copper 1,72. 10-8 Ω. m
B- Insulators: Insulating materials have high resistivity ranging from 104 Ωm to 1014 Ω.m.
Example : Glass (>=1010 Ω.m), PVC (1013 Ω.m).
C- Semiconductors : They have resistivity ranging from 10-3 Ω.m and 103 Ω.m. electrical
conduction is ensured bu both electrons and holes.
Example: Silicium (2,3.103 Ωm in 27°C =300°K), Germanium (0,45 Ωm in 300°K)
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Note:
❑ If 𝝆 < 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ω. 𝒎 = 𝒈𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝝆 > 𝟏𝟎10 Ω. 𝒎 = 𝒈𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓

❑ Temperature affects the resistivity: if the temperature increases,

the resistivity of metals increases and that of semiconductors decreases.

Note:
La température influe sur la résistivité : en effet, si la température augmente, la résistivité des
métaux augmente et celle des semi-conducteurs diminue. 7
II. intrinsic semiconductors (or Pure semiconductors)
A material is called an intrinsic semiconductor when it is perfectly pure, meaning that all its atoms are of the same
type. In this case, the semiconductor contains no foreign atoms or impurities.
There are several types of semiconductors:

Lorsqu’un matériau est parfaitement pur (c’est-à-dire que tous ses atomes sont du même type), on parle de semi-
conducteur intrinsèque. Un semi-conducteur est dit intrinsèque lorsqu’il est pur et ne contient aucun atome étranger
(impureté). Il existe plusieurs types de semi-conducteurs :

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 A. Simple or single element:
The simple semiconductor materials are found in Group IV of the periodic table of elements (see Table 1).

Simple semiconductor materials have the main characteristic of being tetravalent. Their outermost shell contains 4
electrons. Examples: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge).

Les matériaux semi-conducteurs simples ont pour principale caractéristique d'être tétravalents, c'est-à-dire
que la couche la plus externe contient 4 électrons. Exemples : Silicium (Si), Germanium (Ge)
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Silicon has 14 electrons distributed across 3 electron orbitals containing 2, 8, and 4 electrons respectively. Germanium
has 4 electron orbitals containing 2, 8, 18, and 4 electrons respectively. The valence corresponds to the number of
electrons (4) contained in the outermost electron orbital, the one furthest from the atom's nucleus. Table 1, gives some
of their characteristics (atomic number Z, atomic mass na , density and Valance V)

Characteristics Si Ge
atomic number Z 14 (2,8,4) 32 (2,8,18,4)
na (at/cm3) 5 . 1022 4,42 . 1022
density (gr/cm3) 2,32 5,32
Valence 4 4

Le silicium possède 14 électrons répartis sur 3 orbitales électroniques contenant respectivement 2, 8 et 4

électrons. Le germanium possède 4 orbitales électroniques contenant respectivement 2, 8, 18 et 4 électrons. La
valence correspond au nombre d'électrons (4) contenus dans l'orbitale électronique externe, la plus éloignée du
noyau de l'atome. Le tableau 1 présente certaines de leurs caractéristiques (numéro atomique Z, masse atomique
na, densité et Valance V). 10
Silicon has 14 electrons distributed across 3 electron orbitals containing 2, 8, and 4 electrons respectively. Germanium
has 4 electron orbitals containing 2, 8, 18, and 4 electrons respectively. The valence corresponds to the number of
electrons (4) contained in the outermost electron orbital, the one furthest from the atom's nucleus. Table 1, gives some
of their characteristics (atomic number Z, atomic mass na , density and Valance V)

Characteristics Si Ge
atomic number Z 14 (2,8,4) 32 (2,8,18,4)
na (at/cm3) 5 . 1022 4,42 . 1022
density (gr/cm3) 2,32 5,32
Valence 4 4

B. Compounds (2 or more elements):

Binary (2 elements), AsGa ,GaP, GaN, …….

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. II.1. Covalent bonds:
Elementary semiconductors (Si, Ge) have 4 valence electrons in their outermost shell, which is therefore not
saturated (the valence shell is saturated with 8 electrons). Each atom can share its valence electrons with its 4 nearest
neighbors, allowing each atom in the lattice to be surrounded by 8 electrons and ensuring the stability of the crystal.
In this figure, only the valence electrons are shown.

Les semi conducteurs élémentaire (Si, Ge) posséde 4 électrons de valence sur leur dernière couche qui n'est donc pas
saturée (couche de valence saturée à 8 électrons) . chaque atome va pouvoir partager avec ses 4 proches voisins ses
électrons de valence , ce qui permet à chaque atome du réseau d'étre entouré de 8 électrons et d'assurer la stabilité du
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cristal. dans cette figure, seuls les électrons de valence son représentés
. II.2. Energy Band :
The energy levels allowed to valence electrons are grouped into bands. Each band consists of a large number of
discrete and superimposed energy levels, and each energy level can contain 2 charge carriers.
The allowed energy bands are the Valence Band (VB) and the Conduction Band (CB) ; they are separated by
an band called gap band energy Eg (Bande interdite).

les niveaux d'énergie permis aux électrons de valence sont regroupés en bandes. chaque bande est constituée
d'un grand nombre de niveaux énergétiques discrets et suprposés et chaque niveau d'énergie peut contenir 2 porteurs
de charge.
Les bandes d'énergie autorisées sont la bande de valence (BV) et la bande de conduction (BC) ; elles sont séparées
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par une bande appelée énergie de bande interdite Eg (Bande interdite).
.
• An insulator like carbon has a high Gap Band GB.
• A conductor has no GB, and the allowed bands CB, and VB.
• Between these two extremes are semiconductors, which have a relatively low Gap band GB and that varies
with temperature.

Atome Eg (ev) Types of matrials

C (Carbone) 5,5 Insolator

Si 1,1 Semiconductor
Ge 0,7 Semiconductor
Sn (Etain) 0 Conductor

un isolant posséde une BI élevée (cas du carbone). A l'inverse, un conducteur n'a pas de BI, et les bandes permises BC et BV.
entre ces deux cas extremes, il ya les semiconducteur qui possédent une BI relativemet faible et variable avec la température

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.

❑ When the temperature is low (T ≈ 0° K)

Note : (°C = K – 273,15)
The semiconductor does not receive external energy. All valence electrons form covalent bonds, and
their energies are located in the valence band VB. There are no electrons moving freely within the crystal,
and no electron has energy that places it in the conduction band CB, in this case the CB is empty.

Le semi-conducteur ne reçoit pas d'énergie externe. Tous les électrons de valence forment des liaisons
covalentes et leur énergie est localisée dans la bande de valence (BV). Aucun électron ne se déplace librement
dans le cristal et aucun électron ne possède une énergie suffisante pour accéder à la bande de conduction (BC), qui
est donc vide.

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❑ When the temperature increases (≈ 300° K)
• The semiconductor crystal gains thermal energy.
• Some electrons gain sufficient energy to break their covalent bonds.
• These electrons become free and move through the crystal.
• Free electrons occupy the conduction band (CB).

Lorsque la température augmente (≈ 300 K)

• le cristal semi-conducteur absorbe de l'énergie thermique.
• Certains électrons acquièrent suffisamment d'énergie pour rompre leurs liaisons covalentes.
• Ces électrons libres se déplacent alors dans le cristal.
• Les électrons libres occupent la bande de conduction (BC).

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. Figure 4 shows an atom B with an initial positive charge (hole) and a neutral atom A; atom B can become
electrically neutral by capturing an electron from atom A, and the latter acquires a positive charge (hole) by giving
up its electron.

La figure 4 montre un atome B avec une charge positive initiale (trou) et un atome neutre A ; l'atome B peut
devenir électriquement neutre en capturant un électron de l'atome A, et ce dernier acquiert une charge positive
(trou) en cédant son électron.

Atom A Atom B
electron e- (electron) hole (trou)

Figure 4. Mouvement des charges dans le cristal semi-conducteur

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. [Link] relationship
A- Intrinsic concentration (𝒏𝒊 𝑻 )
Is the density of electrons in the Conduction Band or holes in the Valence Band of a pure (undoped)
semiconductor, where 𝒏 = 𝒑 = 𝒏𝒊 . It is heavily dependent on temperature (T) and bandgap energy Eg .
𝟑 𝑬𝒈
(− )
𝒏𝒊 𝑻 = 𝑨. 𝑻 . 𝒆
𝟐 𝟐𝒌𝑻 (𝟐. 𝟏)
Where :
▪ A = A specific constant of the material such that

i. For Si : A = 3,87. 1016

ii. For Ge: A=1,76 . 1016

▪ T = 237,15+t(°C), Absolute temperature in Kelvin
▪ Eg : Gap energy (eV)
Si : Eg (0°K)=1,21 eV ; Ge: Eg (0°K)=0,785 eV
▪ K: Boltzman constant = 8,616. 10-5 eV/°K
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B- Intrinsic conductivity 𝝈𝒊 :
It is given by the following relation
𝝈𝒊 𝑻 = 𝒒. 𝒏𝒊 𝑻 . 𝝁𝒏 + 𝝁𝑷 (2.2)
Avec q=1,6 . 10-19 C (elementary charge); ni(T) : intrinsic concentration; 𝝁𝒏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝝁𝑷 are the mobility of electrons
and holes respectively.
The units of measurement are summarized in Table 3 below:

𝝈𝒊 𝑻 Pi(T) q ni(T) 𝝁𝒏 ; 𝝁𝑷
Unités MKSA 𝜴−𝟏 . 𝒎−𝟏 𝜴. 𝒎 C 𝒎−𝟑 𝒎𝟐 𝑽−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏
Unités CGS 𝜴−𝟏 . 𝒄𝒎−𝟏 𝜴. 𝒄𝒎 C 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝑽−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏

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 𝟏
Intrinsic resistivity 𝝆𝒊 (𝑻) is the inverse of conductivity, 𝝆𝒊 (𝑻) = (2.3)
𝝈𝒊 (𝑻)

Example:
Calculate the intrinsic conductivities of Si and Ge at T=300°K, given that:
Si : ni=1,45.1010/cm3, 𝜇𝑛 = 1350 𝑐𝑚2 /V.s , 𝜇𝑝 = 480 𝑐𝑚2 /V.s
Ge: ni=2,4.1013/cm3, 𝜇𝑛 = 3900 𝑐𝑚2 /V.s , 𝜇𝑝 = 1900 𝑐𝑚2 /V.s
Solution:
➢ For Silicium :
𝝈𝒊 (𝑻)=1,6.10-19 .(1350+480).1,45.1010 = 4,24.10-6 Ω−1 . cm−1
And 𝜌𝑖 = 1ൗ𝝈𝒊 (𝑇) = 0,23. 106 Ω. 𝑐𝑚
➢ For Germanium :
𝝈𝒊 (𝑻)=1,6.10-19 .(3900+1900). 2,4. 1013 = 22,27 .10-3 Ω−1 . cm−1
And 𝜌𝑖 = 1ൗ𝝈𝒊 (𝑇) = 0,04. 103 Ω. 𝑐𝑚

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C- Carrier concentrations (Concentration des porteurs):
In semiconductors, free electrons and holes are the carries that provide conduction. For cases where the number
of carriers are much less than the number of band states, the carrier concentrations can be approximated by using
Boltzman statistics, giving the results below.
▪ E𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝒏 ∶
𝑬𝒄 −𝑬𝑭
The free-electron concentration n can be approximated by 𝒏 = 𝑵𝒄 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − (2.4)
𝒌𝑩 𝑻

Where: Ec is the energy of the conduction band

EF is the energy of the Fermi level
KB is the Boltzmann constant
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvins
Nc is the effective density of states at the conduction band edge given by
𝟑ൗ
𝟐𝝅𝒎∗𝒆 𝑲𝑩 𝑻 𝟐
𝑵𝒄 = 𝟐 , With 𝑚𝑒∗ beging the electron effective mass 9.11 × 10−31 kg
𝒉𝟐

h : being the planck constant 21

 ▪ Hole 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝒑 ∶
The free-hole concentration p can be approximated by
𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝒗
𝒑 = 𝑵𝑽 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − (2.5)
𝒌𝑩 𝑻

Where: EV is the energy of the valence band

EF is the energy of the Fermi level
KB is the Boltzmann constant
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvins
Nv is the effective density of states at the vanlence band edge given by
𝟑ൗ
𝟐𝝅𝒎∗𝒉 𝑲𝑩 𝑻 𝟐
𝑵𝑽 = 𝟐 , With 𝑚ℎ∗ being the hole effective mass 9.11 × 10−31 kg
𝒉𝟐

h : being the planck constant

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 ▪ M𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐋𝐚𝐰 :
In electronics and semiconductor physics, the law of mass action relates the concentrations of free electrons and
holes.
𝒏. 𝒑 = 𝒏𝟐𝒊 (constant value)

𝑬𝒈
𝒏𝒑 = 𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝑽 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − (2.6)
𝑲𝑩 𝑻

Where Eg is the band gap energy given by 𝑬𝒈 = 𝑬𝒄 − 𝑬𝑽

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D- The Fermi energy EF:
▪ The Fermi energy is in the middle of the band gap (Ec + Ev)/2
▪ For an intrinsic semiconductor, every time an electron moves from the
valence band to the conduction band, it leaves a hole behind in the valence
band. The density of electrons in the conduction band equals the density of
holes in the valence band.

(2.7)
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III. Extrinsic semiconductors (or Doped semiconductors)
Doping refers to the addition of impurity atoms to a crystal, to increase the number of free electrons
or the number of holes. A doped crystal is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
There are two types of dopoed semiconductor:

III.1. - N-Type Semiconductors.

To increase the number of electrons in the conduction band, the doper used belongs to the family of
pentavalent elements (with five electrons in the valence orbit) (As, Sb, P,...):

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 The doper atom integrates into the semiconductor crystal; however, to form bonds with neighboring
atoms, 4 electrons are required, leaving the fifth in excess with no place for it.

L'atome dopant s'intègre dans le cristal semi-conducteur ; cependant, pour former des liaisons avec les atomes
voisins, 4 électrons sont nécessaires, laissant le cinquième en excès sans place pour lui.

Electron libre

Liaison
covalente

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The dopant is said to be a donor (N) of electrons (carriers of Negative charge). It is important to note that when this
electron leaves its atom, it leaves behind a fixed positive ion.

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❑ Depending on the number of impurity atoms introduced, we will have a certain concentration of free electron
and in this cas n > p.

En fonction du nombre d'atome d'impurtés introduits, on va avoir une certaine concentration d'électrons libres et dans ce
cas n>p.

❑ For example, the introduced phosphorus atoms are called donor

atoms, and the silicon crystal into which the phosphorus has been
introduced is type N.

par exemple les atomes de phosphore introduits sont appelés atomes

donneurs, et le cristal de silicium dans lequel on a introduit le phosphore est
type N

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 ❑ The energy level corresponding to the 5th electron of the donor atom is called the donor level ED. A donor level
is a discrete energy state introduced in the bandgap of an n-type semiconductor, located just below the
conduction band. For example in the case of Phosphor, the ED is 40 meV.

Le niveau d'énergie correspondant au 5e électron de l'atome donneur est appelé niveau donneur. Un niveau
donneur est un état d'énergie discret introduit dans la bande interdite d'un semi-conducteur de type n, situé juste en
dessous de la bande de conduction.

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[Link] between concentrations

Electrical neutrality of the semiconductor: The law of conservation of charge requires that the
concentration of positive charges be equal to the concentration of negative charges, at every point of
the semiconductor p+ND = n + NA
NA and ND are the Acceptor and Donor concentrations.
Let's write that the semiconductor is electrically neutral (Supposing that NA = 0):
𝒏 = 𝒑 + 𝑵𝑫 And 𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝒏 . 𝒑

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 [Link] between concentrations

Tapez une
Electrical neutrality of the semiconductor: Theéquation ici.
law of conservation of charge requires that the
concentration of positive charges be equal to the concentration of negative charges, at every point of
the semiconductor
p+ND = n + NA

NA and ND are the Acceptor and Donor concentrations.

Let's write that the semiconductor is electrically neutral (Supposing that NA = 0):

𝒏 = 𝒑 + 𝑵𝑫 And 𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝒏 . 𝒑

The concentration of negative carriers (majority) is much higher than the concentration of positive
carriers (minority), resulting in:
𝑛 = 𝑝 + 𝑁𝐷 ≈ 𝑁𝐷
𝑛≫𝑝 ⇒ቐ 𝑛𝑖2 𝑛𝑖2
𝑝= ≈
𝑛 𝐷𝑁
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❑ The dopant is said to be a donor (N) of electrons (carriers of Negative charge). It is important to note that when
this electron leaves its atom, it leaves behind a fixed negative ion.

❑ In the energy band scheme modeling, the free electron population in the BC is much smaller than the free hole
population in the VB. The Fermi
❑ level indicator EFP shifts from the animated EFi level to the valence band such that:

𝑁𝐷
𝐸𝐹𝑛 = 𝐸𝐹𝑖 + 𝐾𝐵 . 𝑇. 𝑙𝑛
𝑛𝑖

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III.2. - P-Type Semiconductors.

The doper used belongs to the trivalent family (B, Ga, In, …). It belongs to group (III). Its atom has
three valence electrons

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 The doper atom integrates into the semiconductor crystal; however, to form bonds with neighboring atoms, 4
electrons are required, while the dopant brings only 3. Consequently, there is an available hole that can accommodate
an electron from a neighboring atom.

Trou (Hole)

Liaison
covalente

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The doper atom becomes a fixed negative ion. The atom left behind will have a hole and an excess
positive charge. The dopant is referred to as an acceptor (P) of electrons.

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❑ Depending on the number of impurity atoms introduced, we will have a certain concentration of free electron
and in this cas p > n.

En fonction du nombre d'atome d'impurtés introduits, on va avoir une certaine concentration d'électrons libres et dans ce
cas p > n.

❑ For example, the introduced Indium (In) atoms are called acceptor
atoms, and the silicon crystal into which the Indium has been
introduced is type P.

par exemple les atomes de phosphore introduits sont appelés atomes

donneurs, et le cristal de silicium dans lequel on a introduit le phosphore est
type N

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❑ Indium -doped silicon is of type P. The dopant element is an acceptor. When the acceptor atoms are ionized,
they constitute fixed negative charges. The energy level associated with the acceptor atoms is called the
Acceptor Energy level (EA), and it is located a few tens of meV from the top of the valence band.

le silicium dopé au bore est de type P. L’élement dopant est un accepteur. Quant les atomes accepteurs sont
Ionisés, ils constituent des charges fixes négatives.
Le niveau d’énergie associé aux atomes accepteurs, est appelé niveau accepteur EA, et il est situé à quelques
Dizaine de meV du sommet de la bande de valence

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[Link] between concentrations

Electrical neutrality of the semiconductor: The law of conservation of charge requires that the
concentration of positive charges be equal to the concentration of negative charges, at every point of
the semiconductor p+ND = n + NA
NA and ND are the Acceptor and Donor concentrations.
Let's write that the semiconductor is electrically neutral (Supposing that ND = 0):
𝒑 = 𝒏 + 𝑵𝑨 And 𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝒏 . 𝒑

F
EA
EFp

P 38
 [Link] between concentrations

The concentration of positive carriers (majority) is much higher than the concentration of negatif
carriers (minority), resulting in:

𝑝 = 𝑛 + 𝑁𝐴 ≈ 𝑁𝐴
𝑝≫𝑛 ⇒ቐ 𝑛𝑖2 𝑛𝑖2
𝑛= ≈
𝑝 𝑁𝐴

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❑ The dopant is said to be a Acceptor (P) of electrons (carriers of Positif charge). It is important to note that when
this electron leaves its atom, it leaves behind a fixed positive ion.

❑ In modeling the energy band scheme, the population of free electrons in the BC is much larger than that of
free holes in the VB .

❑ The Fermi level (EFn) shifts from the middle of the EFi band gap to the conduction band in such a way that:

𝑁𝐴
𝐸𝐹𝑝 = 𝐸𝐹𝑖 − 𝐾𝐵 . 𝑇. 𝑙𝑛
𝑛𝑖

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41
 IV. PN junction.
The performance of semiconductor materials is
exploited when an N region is placed adjacent to a P P- Type SC N- Type SC
region.
Les performances des matériaux semiconducteurs sont
exploitées lorsqu'on met une régoin N adjacente à une
région P. Acceptor ion
Minority carrier Donor ion
Majority carrier
What is a PN junction ? Figure IV.1
Definition: A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types, namely
the p-type and the n-type, in a single crystal.

❑ Each region has two types of carriers: majority carrier and minority carrier. the concentration of carriers are
❑

❑ chaque région est le porteur de deux types de porteurs: des porteurs majoritaires et des porteurs minoritaires.

N-Region P-Region
𝑛𝑖2 𝑛𝑖2
𝑛𝑁 =𝑁𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑁 = 𝑁 𝑝𝑃 =𝑁𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑁
𝐷 𝐴

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If the two regions are isolated (Figure IV.1), each region is P- Type SC N- Type SC
electrically neutral:
- There are as many free electrons as positively charged
fixed ions in the N region.
- There are as many holes as negatively charged fixed ions
in the P region. Acceptor ion Minority carrier Donor ion
Majority carrier

Figure IV.1

Si les deux régions sont isolées (Figure IV.1), chaque zone est
éléectriquement neutre:
- Il y a autant d’électrons libres que d’ions fixes chargès
positivement dans la région N.
- Il y a autant de trous que d’ions fixes chargés négativement
dans la région P.

43
❑ If we combine the two regions (figure VI.2), the
carriers in the neighborhood of the junction will tend
to diffuse towards the region where they are in the
P- Type SC N- Type SC
minority.
- The holes in the P region will diffuse towards the
N region.
- The electrons in the N region will diffuse towards
the P region. Acceptor ion
Minority carrier Donor ion
Majority carrier

❑ Si l’on réunit les deux régions (Figure VI.2), les porteurs au Figure IV.1
voisinage de la jonction vont tendre à diffuser vers la région
ou ils sont minoritaires.
P- Type SC N- Type SC
- Les trous très nombreux dans la région P vont diffuser vers la
région N.
- Les électrons très nombreux dans la région N vont diffuser
vers la région P.

Figure IV.2

44
❑ If we combine the two regions (figure VI.2), the
carriers in the neighborhood of the junction will tend
to diffuse towards the region where they are in the
P- Type SC N- Type SC
minority.
- The holes in the P region will diffuse towards the
N region.
- The electrons in the N region will diffuse towards
the P region. Acceptor ion
Minority carrier Donor ion
Majority carrier

❑ Si l’on réunit les deux régions (Figure VI.2), les porteurs au Figure IV.1
voisinage de la jonction vont tendre à diffuser vers la région
ou ils sont minoritaires.
P- Type SC N- Type SC
- Les trous très nombreux dans la région P vont diffuser vers la
région N.
- Les électrons très nombreux dans la région N vont diffuser
vers la région P.

Figure IV.2

45
 ❑ Electrons that have diffused from the N-region to the
P-region, where they are in excess, will disappear P- Type SC N- Type SC
through recombination with the majority holes in that
region. The same is true for holes that have diffused
towards the N-region.

❑ In the vicinity of the junction appears a region devoid

Acceptor ion Donor ion
of free carriers called the space charge zone or Minority carrier
Majority carrier
depletion zone (Figure IV.3)
Figure IV.1

❑ Les électrons qui ont diffusé de la région N vers la depletion

P neutral zone region N neutral zone
région P ou ils se retrouvent en excès vont disparaitre
par recombinaison avec les trous majoritaires de cette
zone. Il en est de même des trous qui ont diffusés vers
la région N.
❑ Au voisinage de la jonction apparait une zone vide de
porteurs libres appelée zone de charge d’espace ou zone de Figure IV.2
deplétion (Figure IV.3)
46
➢ On the N side of the junction, there is a layer of positively charged ions; on the P side of the junction, there is a
layer of negatively charged ions. An Ei internal electrostatic field, is established across the junction between the
oppositely charged ions. The diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction will continue until the
magnitude of the electrostatic field is increased to the point where the electrons and holes no longer have
enough energy to overcome it, and are repelled by the negative and positive ions respectively. At this point
equilibrium is established and, for all practical purposes, the movement of carriers across the junction ceases.
For this reason, the electrostatic field created by the positive and negative ions in the depletion region is called a
barrier. VD
➢ It is therefore from this potential barrier (diffusion) V which depletion
P neutral zone region N neutral zone
is formed at the junction P.N. that all the properties of the
crystal diode depend.
𝑬𝒊

Figure IV.2

➢ Du côté de la jonction N, on trouve une couche d'ions chargés positivement ; du côté P, une couche d'ions chargés
négativement. Un champ électrostatique interne, s'établit à travers la jonction entre les ions de charges opposées. La
diffusion des électrons et des trous à travers la jonction se poursuit jusqu'à ce que l'intensité du champ électrostatique
atteigne un niveau où les électrons et les trous n'ont plus assez d'énergie pour le surmonter et sont repoussés respectivement
par les ions négatifs et positifs. À ce stade, l'équilibre est atteint et, en pratique, le mouvement des porteurs de charge à
travers la jonction cesse. C'est pourquoi le champ électrostatique créé par les ions positifs et négatifs dans la zone 47
de
déplétion est appelé barrière.
IV.1. Energy diagram for a PN junction.
ECP

EF
EF

EVN

Depletion
region

𝑬𝑷𝑵 = −𝒒𝑽𝑫
Fermi Level
VD : tension de diffusion
𝑁𝐴 . 𝑁𝐷
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑈𝑇 . 𝐿𝑛
𝑛𝑖2
𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑈𝑇 =
𝑞
48
IV.1. Energy diagram for a PN junction.

The expression for carrier densities is written as:

If we write this expression for electrons in the N region and in the P region, we get:

49
 VD
IV.2. Polarized PN junction. depletion
P neutral zone region N neutral zone

A- Jonction P-N polarisée en inverse 𝑬𝒊𝒏

❑ If we connect the N side of a PN junction to the + of a voltage

𝑬𝒆𝒙𝒕
source and the P side to the - of the source Figure IV.4, the
junction is reverse-biased with a voltage whose absolute value VR
is denoted VR. In this case, the voltage applied to the PN
junction is : Vj = VD + VR
Figure IV.4
❑ Dans cet cas la barrière que doivent surmonter les porteurs majoritaires pour diffuser est plus haute.
Le champ inverse au niveau de la jonction va donc être renforcé; et empêcher tout passage des
porteurs majoritaires. Par contre, son sens est toujours favorable au passage des porteurs minoritaires.

50
 VD
IV.2. Polarized PN junction. depletion
P neutral zone region N neutral zone

A- Jonction P-N polarisée en direct 𝑬𝒊𝒏

❑ If we connect the N side of a PN junction to the - of a voltage 𝑬𝒆𝒙𝒕

source and the P side to the + of the source Figure IV.5, the
junction is reverse-biased with a voltage whose absolute value VR
is denoted VR. In this case, the voltage applied to the PN
junction is : Vj = VD - VR
Figure IV.5
❑ Dans cet cas la barrière que doivent surmonter les porteurs majoritaires pour diffuser est plus basse.
Le champ inverse au niveau de la jonction va donc être faible; et favoriser le passage des porteurs
majoritaires.

Ecp
Vj = VD - VR
Ecn
EF EF
Evp
Evn

51
V. DIODE .
❑ Diodes are semiconductor devices that allow current to flow in one direction only.

➢ Current can flow from anode to cathode, but not from cathode to anode

❑ Diodes are semiconductor devices :

Formed from the junction of two dissimilar semiconductor materials

P-type and N-type semiconductors

52
V.1. Diode principle

P N
Before junction

After junction

NA Acceptor atoms concentration in zone P

N N  ND Donors atoms concentration in zone N
U 0 = U T  Ln A 2 D 

 ni  ni Intrinsic concentration of materials
kT
UT Thermodynamic voltage UT =
q
53
▪ Diode terminal characteristics

𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠 . 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1
𝑈𝑇

Is

Passing diode
Blocked diode
 V.3. Diode terminal characteristics
V.3.1. Diode Model
The diode can be modeled in three different ways depending on the accuracy [Link] models are
listed below

La diode peut être modélisée de trois manières différentes selon la précision requise. Trois modèles sont
présentés ci-dessous.

55
 A- Ideal diode model (Modele diode parfait)

Id > 0 A

A B

❑ It indicates the the voltage drop across the diode is zero for any value of diode current (of course within the
maximum limit). The ideal diode does not allow any current to flow in reverse biased condition. the current
flowing through the diode is zero for any value of reverse biased voltage
Cela indique que la chute de tension aux bornes de la diode est nulle quelle que soit la valeur du courant qui la
traverse (dans les limites maximales autorisées). Une diode idéale ne laisse passer aucun courant en polarisation
inverse. Le courant traversant la diode est nul pour toute valeur de tension inverse.
56
 B- Nearly Ideal diode model (model avec tension de seuil)

V = Vs
Id > 0 A
V < Vs
I= 0 A

B Vs
A

Open circuit for Vd < Vs

❑ This illustrates characteristic as a nearly diode model. There is no current for voltages applied to the diode
below Vs. At this value, the diode conducts and the voltage remains constant regardless of the current flowing
through it.
illustre la caractéristique I(V) en deuxième approximation. Il n'existe pas de courant pour des tensions
appliquées sur la diode inférieures à Vs. À cette valeur, la diode conduit et la tension reste constante quel que
soit le courant qui la traverse. 57
C- Nearly Ideal diode model (modele avec résistance série)

Vd < Vs
I= 0 A

I =0 U = Us + r  I

58
 [Link] circuit configuration

D
I a

Analytic method :
V
Es U R
  V 
 I = I S  exp   (1)
  UT 
 Es = V + R  I
b  (2)

Consisting of an system equation resolution :

𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠 . 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 1 Characteristic equation
൞ 𝑈𝑇
𝐸𝑠 = 𝑉 + 𝑅. 𝐼 Load line equation (use KVL)

59
Graphical method

The intersection of the two curves will define the solution for the network and define the current and voltage
levels for the network
(VQ , IQ )
I
𝑬𝒔 = V + 𝑹 . 𝒊 Characteristics (device)

ES
i= 0 ; 𝑽 = 𝑬𝒔
R
𝐸𝑠
V= 0 ; 𝑖 = 𝑅
IQ Q point

The straight line is called a load line Load line (network)

La ligne droite est appelée ligne de charge

VQ ES V

60
Dynamics resistance ?

Tangent to the characteristics

𝑑𝑉
at Q point
𝑟=
I 𝑑𝑖
Q point
𝑄
ES
R V

IQ

VQ ES V

61
 VI. Diode terminal characteristics
D
I (mA)
Three operating regions 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠 . 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑉
−1
𝑈𝑇
Forward biased (CD)
➢Vd > 0 V
➢Current flows from anode to cathode
Vs : tension de seuil
C
Reverse biased (biais inversé) (BC) B Vs
Vs
➢Vd< 0 V
➢Negligible, nearly-constant saturation
➢current, Is, flow from cathode to anode

Reverse breakdown (panne inversée) (AB)

➢ Vd< VBR
➢ Large reverse current flows A
Given a diode characteristics
I = f (U )
62
Exercise 1.

A diode has a characteristic I=f(U), as shown in Figure 1.

[Link] the equations of the characteristic I=f(U) for the three regions (AB), (BC), and (CD).
[Link] the equation of the load line (droite de charge) for the circuit in Figure 2.
[Link] the operating point (point de fonctionnement) of the diode in the circuit.

𝑅 = 400Ω 𝑅 = 100Ω 𝑅 = 400Ω 𝑅 = 200Ω

Given: (a) ቊ 𝑏 ቊ 𝑐 ቊ (d) ቊ
𝐸 = 4𝑉 𝐸 = 2𝑉 𝐸 = −2𝑉 𝐸 = 10𝑉

a) Use the analytical method (mathematical model).

b) Use the graphical method.

Figure 1
63
Figure 2
1 : The caracteristic equation I=f(u)

AB region : U = -5, we note Uz = -5 (Zener voltage)

BC region : I = 0
CD region : U = Us + r . i
We calculate the resistance r of this diode
1 ∆𝐼 1 10. 10 −3
= = 𝑟 = 100 Ω
𝑟 ∆𝑈 𝑟 1
Us = 1V
U = 1+ 100. i

64
2. The equation of the load line is determined by using the loop law.

65
3. the operating point (point de fonctionnement) of the diode in the circuit.

66
67
68
69
 VII. Types of diodes

[Link] Diodes (Single PN Junction):

This is the single PN junction type. Applications: Circuit protection - logic circuits - rectification - filtering - etc.
2. Light Emitting Diode:
This is the single PN junction type. Applications: Circuit protection - logic circuits –
rectification - filtering - etc.

The LED emits light when forward biased. When a voltage La LED émet de la lumière lorsqu'elle est polarisée en direct.
Quand une tension est appliquée aux bornes de la jonction pour
is applied across the junction to make it forward biased, a
la rendre polarisée en direct, un courant circule comme dans le
current flows as in the case of any PN junction. cas de toute jonction PN.

Areas of application: Light indicators (on/off, operating Domaines d'application : Indicateurs lumineux (marche-arrêt,
status, light displays, etc.) - 7-segment displays (7 LEDs) état de fonctionnement, jeux de lumière, … ) - Afficheurs à 7
segments (7 LED)

70
 3. Zener Diode

❑ A Zener diode is an assembly of two semiconductors whose electrical properties were discovered by the American
physicist Clarence Zener.
❑ Unlike a conventional diode, which only allows electric current to flow in one direction (forward), Zener diodes are
designed to also allow reverse current, but only if the voltage across their terminals is higher than the avalanche effect
threshold.
❑ This reverse voltage threshold (Zener voltage) has a fixed value ranging from 1.2 V to several hundred volts.
❑ The zener diode symbol are :

❑ Une diode Zener est un assemblage de deux semi-conducteurs dont les propriétés électriques ont été découvertes
par le physicien américain Clarence Zener.
❑ Contrairement à une diode conventionnelle qui ne laisse passer le courant électrique que dans un seul sens, le
sens direct, les diodes Zener sont conçues de façon à laisser également passer le courant inverse, mais ceci
uniquement si la tension à ses bornes est plus élevée que le seuil de l'effet d'avalanche.
❑ Ce seuil en tension inverse (tension Zener) est de valeur déterminée pouvant aller de 1,2 V à plusieurs centaines
de volts. Certaines diodes Zener comportent une troisième broche qui permet de régler cet effet d'avalanche. 71
3.1. Characteristic of Diode Zener

It has three modes of operation D

CD: Direct polarized Diode (forward bias diode)

The first quadrant of the graph depicts the forward
characteristics of a Zener diode, and from which we
can understand that it is almost similar to the forward C
C
characteristics of any other normal PN junction
diode. B Us
𝑽 = 𝑽 + 𝒓 .𝑰
𝒔 𝒅 𝒅
𝑰𝒅 ≠ 𝟎 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑫𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆

Le premier quadrant du graphique représente les

caractéristiques directes d'une diode Zener, et à partir
duquel nous pouvons comprendre qu'elles sont presque
A
similaires aux caractéristiques directes de toute autre
diode à jonction PN normale.
72
BC : Reverse Characteristics
D

When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage,

a small reverse saturation current which is (Io) flows
across the whole diode. This current is present due to
thermally generated minority carriers present in the
diode C C
𝑽𝒛 ≤ 𝑼 ≤ 𝑽𝒔 B I0

𝑰=𝟎 (𝑫𝑰𝑶𝑫𝑬 𝑩𝑳𝑶𝑪𝑲𝑬𝑫)

Lorsqu'une tension inverse est appliquée à une diode

Zener, un faible courant de saturation inverse (Io) circule A
dans toute la diode. Ce courant est dû aux porteurs
minoritaires générés thermiquement dans la diode.
73
 AB : Reverse Characteristics

As the reverse voltage starts to increase, at a certain value of D

reverse voltage the reverse current also starts to increase
drastically and sharply. This is proof that the breakdown in
the diode has occurred. This voltage is known as breakdown
voltage in zener diode or Zener voltage and is denoted by
(Vz).
𝑼 < 𝑽𝒁 C C
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒁 + 𝒓𝒁 . 𝑰𝒁 B I0

𝑰𝒁 ≠ 𝟎 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑫𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆

Lorsque la tension inverse augmente, à partir d'une certaine

valeur, le courant inverse croît lui aussi brutalement. Ceci
indique que la diode a subi un claquage. Cette tension, appelée A
tension de claquage qui est connue sous le nom de tension
Zener (Vz),
74
❑ Modeling (equivalent circuits) of the Zener diode:

➢ In Direct polarization: It is characterized and modeled like a normal diode.

➢ In Reverse polarization:

A. Real case:
• It is conducting (Iz > 0) if the voltage V applied across its terminals is greater than the Zener voltage Vz: V > Vz.
∆𝑼𝒛
• the dynamic resistance is given by 𝑹𝒛 = ∆ 𝑰𝒛
Case 1 Case 2

75
B. ideal case

76
VIII. Main applications of diodes
VIII.1. Rectifier Circuits

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), to direct current (DC), which flows in only
one direction. The process is known as rectification.

77
 -+
Ve
1
v(t )
2

+-

Vs

• 1 : ve(t) > 0
• 2 : ve(t) < 0
Note:
If the diode is idealized (Vd ≠ 0), the result of the rectification is illustrated by the graph opposite.

Remarque :
Si la diode est idéalisée (Vd ≠ 0), le résultat du redressement est illustré par le graphe ci-contre.

𝑉𝑒 = 𝑉𝑑 + 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉𝑑

For example Vd = 0.7 V

Ve(t)

Vs(t)

0.7 V

79
VIII.2. Double Alternating rectification
Circuit used: 4-diode bridge: "Graetz bridge".

80
 During the positive alternation During the negative alternation

D1 and D2 are conducting (short circuits) D1 and D2 are blocking (open circuits)
D3 and D4 are blocking (open circuits) D3 and D4 are conducting (short circuits)

81
 Ve 
Ve Vs

Vs
 ve(t) > 0
➔
 Ve
 
Ve Vs  

Vs
 ve(t) < 0
➔
VIII.3. Filtering

• Principe du filtrage :

Ve Vs

0
 VIII.4. Logic circuit
Diodes enable the implementation of basic logic operators (gates) (OR, AND, …) thanks to their ability to
operate “in switching” mode: blocking state conducting state.

Les diodes permettent la matérialisation des opérateurs (portes) logiques de base (OU, ET, …) grâce à leur
possibilité de fonctionnement ʺen commutationʺ : état bloquant état passant.

85
"OR" circuit:

86