ELECRONICS COURSE

Dr. Abderrezak Med Zaki

Chapter 1: Basics of the Physics of Semiconductor
Materials

1. Semiconductors
1.1 General Information
1.2 Intrinsic Semiconductor
1.3 Extrinsic Semiconductor (P and N)
1.4 Non-Polarized PN Junction
1.5 Polarized PN Junction 3.
2. The junction Diode
3. The Zener Diode
 Chapter 1: Basics of the Physics of Semiconductor
Materials

Introduction.
 A semiconductor is a material whose electrical conductivity is between a conductor (like copper) and an
insulator (like glass). Generally, Its conductivity is ranges from 10−3/Ω.cm and 103 /Ω.cm

Un semi-conducteur est un matériau dont la conductivité électrique se situe entre celle d'un conducteur
(comme le cuivre) et celle d'un isolant (comme le verre). Sa conductivité se situe généralement entre
10−3/Ω.cm et 103 /Ωcm.
 Unlike metals, the conductivity of a semiconductor is not constant. It depends on
several important factors, such as:
 Temperature.
 The presence of impurities (doping).
 illumination (light exposure).

Contrairement aux métaux, la conductivité d'un semi-conducteur n'est pas constante. Elle
dépend de plusieurs facteurs importants, tels que:
 La température.
 La présence d’impuretés (dopage)
 La lumière
 These properties make semiconductors very useful in the manufacturing of electronic
components such as diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits.
In this chapter, we present the basic physical concepts needed to understand how
semiconductor-based components work.

 Ces propriétés rendent les semi-conducteurs très utiles dans la fabrication de composants
électroniques tels que les diodes, les transistors et les circuits intégrés.
Dans ce chapitre, nous présentons les concepts physiques fondamentaux nécessaires à la
compréhension du fonctionnement des composants à base de semi-conducteurs.
I. Electrical materials
 In electrical engineering, the materials used are classified into 3 groups; this classification
depends on the resistivity 𝝆 of the material.
A- Conductors : There are normally metals with resistivity ranging from 10-7 Ω.m to 10-8 Ωm.
Electrical conduction is ensured by electrons.
Example : Aluminum 2,75. 10-8 Ω.m, Copper 1,72. 10-8 Ω. m
B- Insulators: Insulating materials have high resistivity ranging from 104 Ωm to 1014 Ω.m.
Example : Glass (>=1010 Ω.m), PVC (1013 Ω.m).
C- Semiconductors : They have resistivity ranging from 10-3 Ω.m and 103 Ω.m. electrical
conduction is ensured bu both electrons and holes.
Example: Silicium (2,3.103 Ωm in 27°C =300°K), Germanium (0,45 Ωm in 300°K)
Note:
 If 𝝆 < 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ω. 𝒎 = 𝒈𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝝆 > 𝟏𝟎10 Ω. 𝒎 = 𝒈𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓

 Temperature affects the resistivity: if the temperature increases,

the resistivity of metals increases and that of semiconductors decreases.

Note:
La température influe sur la résistivité : en effet, si la température augmente, la résistivité des
métaux augmente et celle des semi-conducteurs diminue.
II. intrinsic semiconductors (or Pure semiconductors)
A material is called an intrinsic semiconductor when it is perfectly pure, meaning that all its atoms are of the same
type. In this case, the semiconductor contains no foreign atoms or impurities.
There are several types of semiconductors:

Lorsqu’un matériau est parfaitement pur (c’est-à-dire que tous ses atomes sont du même type), on parle de semi-
conducteur intrinsèque. Un semi-conducteur est dit intrinsèque lorsqu’il est pur et ne contient aucun atome étranger
(impureté). Il existe plusieurs types de semi-conducteurs :
 A. Simple or single element:
The simple semiconductor materials are found in Group IV of the periodic table of elements (see Table 1).

Simple semiconductor materials have the main characteristic of being tetravalent. Their outermost shell contains 4
electrons. Examples: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge).

Les matériaux semi-conducteurs simples ont pour principale caractéristique d'être tétravalents,
c'est-à-dire que la couche la plus externe contient 4 électrons. Exemples : Silicium (Si), Germanium
(Ge)
Silicon has 14 electrons distributed across 3 electron orbitals containing 2, 8, and 4 electrons respectively. Germanium
has 4 electron orbitals containing 2, 8, 18, and 4 electrons respectively. The valence corresponds to the number of
electrons (4) contained in the outermost electron orbital, the one furthest from the atom's nucleus. Table 1, gives some
of their characteristics (atomic number Z, atomic mass na , density and Valance V)

Characteristics Si Ge
atomic number Z 14 (2,8,4) 32 (2,8,18,4)
na (at/cm3) 5 . 1022 4,42 . 1022
density (gr/cm3) 2,32 5,32
Valence 4 4

Le silicium possède 14 électrons répartis sur 3 orbitales électroniques contenant respectivement 2, 8 et 4

électrons. Le germanium possède 4 orbitales électroniques contenant respectivement 2, 8, 18 et 4 électrons. La
valence correspond au nombre d'électrons (4) contenus dans l'orbitale électronique externe, la plus éloignée du
noyau de l'atome. Le tableau 1 présente certaines de leurs caractéristiques (numéro atomique Z, masse atomique
na, densité et Valance V).
Silicon has 14 electrons distributed across 3 electron orbitals containing 2, 8, and 4 electrons respectively. Germanium
has 4 electron orbitals containing 2, 8, 18, and 4 electrons respectively. The valence corresponds to the number of
electrons (4) contained in the outermost electron orbital, the one furthest from the atom's nucleus. Table 1, gives some
of their characteristics (atomic number Z, atomic mass na , density and Valance V)

Characteristics Si Ge
atomic number Z 14 (2,8,4) 32 (2,8,18,4)
na (at/cm3) 5 . 1022 4,42 . 1022
density (gr/cm3) 2,32 5,32
Valence 4 4

B. Compounds (2 or more elements):

Binary (2 elements), AsGa ,GaP, GaN, …….
. II.1. Covalent bonds:
Elementary semiconductors (Si, Ge) have 4 valence electrons in their outermost shell, which is therefore not
saturated (the valence shell is saturated with 8 electrons). Each atom can share its valence electrons with its 4 nearest
neighbors, allowing each atom in the lattice to be surrounded by 8 electrons and ensuring the stability of the crystal.
In this figure, only the valence electrons are shown.

Les semi conducteurs élémentaire (Si, Ge) posséde 4 électrons de valence sur leur dernière couche qui n'est donc pas
saturée (couche de valence saturée à 8 électrons) . chaque atome va pouvoir partager avec ses 4 proches voisins ses
électrons de valence , ce qui permet à chaque atome du réseau d'étre entouré de 8 électrons et d'assurer la stabilité du
cristal. dans cette figure, seuls les électrons de valence son représentés
. II.2. Energy Band :
The energy levels allowed to valence electrons are grouped into bands. Each band consists of a large number of
discrete and superimposed energy levels, and each energy level can contain 2 charge carriers.
The allowed energy bands are the Valence Band (VB) and the Conduction Band (CB) ; they are separated by
an band called gap band energy Eg (Bande interdite).

les niveaux d'énergie permis aux électrons de valence sont regroupés en bandes. chaque bande est constituée
d'un grand nombre de niveaux énergétiques discrets et suprposés et chaque niveau d'énergie peut contenir 2 porteurs
de charge.
Les bandes d'énergie autorisées sont la bande de valence (BV) et la bande de conduction (BC) ; elles sont séparées
par une bande appelée énergie de bande interdite Eg (Bande interdite).
.
• An insulator like carbon has a high Gap Band GB.
• A conductor has no GB, and the allowed bands CB, and VB.
• Between these two extremes are semiconductors, which have a relatively low Gap band GB and that varies
with temperature.

Atome Eg (ev) Types of matrials

C (Carbone) 5,5 Insolator

Si 1,1 Semiconductor
Ge 0,7 Semiconductor
Sn (Etain) 0 Conductor

un isolant posséde une BI élevée (cas du carbone). A l'inverse, un conducteur n'a pas de BI, et les bandes permises BC et BV.
entre ces deux cas extremes, il ya les semiconducteur qui possédent une BI relativemet faible et variable avec la température
.

 When the temperature is low (T ≈ 0° K)

Note : (°C = K – 273,15)
The semiconductor does not receive external energy. All valence electrons form covalent bonds, and
their energies are located in the valence band VB. There are no electrons moving freely within the crystal,
and no electron has energy that places it in the conduction band CB, in this case the CB is empty.

Le semi-conducteur ne reçoit pas d'énergie externe. Tous les électrons de valence forment des liaisons
covalentes et leur énergie est localisée dans la bande de valence (BV). Aucun électron ne se déplace librement
dans le cristal et aucun électron ne possède une énergie suffisante pour accéder à la bande de conduction (BC), qui
est donc vide.
 When the temperature increases (≈ 300° K)
• The semiconductor crystal gains thermal energy.
• Some electrons gain sufficient energy to break their covalent bonds.
• These electrons become free and move through the crystal.
• Free electrons occupy the conduction band (CB).

Lorsque la température augmente (≈ 300 K)

• le cristal semi-conducteur absorbe de l'énergie thermique.
• Certains électrons acquièrent suffisamment d'énergie pour rompre leurs liaisons covalentes.
• Ces électrons libres se déplacent alors dans le cristal.
• Les électrons libres occupent la bande de conduction (BC).
. Figure 4 shows an atom B with an initial positive charge (hole) and a neutral atom A; atom B can become
electrically neutral by capturing an electron from atom A, and the latter acquires a positive charge (hole) by giving
up its electron.

La figure 4 montre un atome B avec une charge positive initiale (trou) et un atome neutre A ; l'atome B peut
devenir électriquement neutre en capturant un électron de l'atome A, et ce dernier acquiert une charge positive
(trou) en cédant son électron.

Atom A Atom B
electron e- (electron) hole (trou)

Figure 4. Mouvement des charges dans le cristal semi-conducteur

. [Link] relationship
A- Intrinsic concentration (𝒏𝒊 𝑻 )
Is the density of electrons in the Conduction Band or holes in the Valence Band of a pure (undoped)
semiconductor, where 𝒏 = 𝒑 = 𝒏𝒊 . It is heavily dependent on temperature (T) and bandgap energy Eg .
𝟑 𝑬𝒈
(− )
𝒏𝒊 𝑻 = 𝑨. 𝑻 . 𝒆
𝟐 𝟐𝒌𝑻 (𝟐. 𝟏)
Where :
 A = A specific constant of the material such that

i. For Si : A = 3,87. 1016

ii. For Ge: A=1,76 . 1016

 T = 237,15+t(°C), Absolute temperature in Kelvin
 Eg : Gap energy (eV)
Si : Eg (0°K)=1,21 eV ; Ge: Eg (0°K)=0,785 eV
 K: Boltzman constant = 8,616. 10-5 eV/°K
B- Intrinsic conductivity 𝝈𝒊 :
It is given by the following relation
𝝈𝒊 𝑻 = 𝒒. 𝒏𝒊 𝑻 . 𝝁𝒏 + 𝝁𝑷 (2.2)
Avec q=1,6 . 10-19 C (elementary charge); ni(T) : intrinsic concentration; 𝝁𝒏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝝁𝑷 are the mobility of electrons
and holes respectively.
The units of measurement are summarized in Table 3 below:

𝝈𝒊 𝑻 Pi(T) q ni(T) 𝝁𝒏 ; 𝝁𝑷
Unités MKSA 𝜴−𝟏 . 𝒎−𝟏 𝜴. 𝒎 C 𝒎−𝟑 𝒎𝟐 𝑽−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏
Unités CGS 𝜴−𝟏 . 𝒄𝒎−𝟏 𝜴. 𝒄𝒎 C 𝒄𝒎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝑽−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏
 𝟏
Intrinsic resistivity 𝝆𝒊 (𝑻) is the inverse of conductivity, 𝝆𝒊(𝑻) = (2.3)
𝝈𝒊 (𝑻)

Example:
Calculate the intrinsic conductivities of Si and Ge at T=300°K, given that:
Si : ni=1,45.1010/cm3, 𝜇𝑛 = 1350 𝑐𝑚2 /V.s , 𝜇𝑝 = 480 𝑐𝑚2 /V.s
Ge: ni=2,4.1013/cm3, 𝜇𝑛 = 3900 𝑐𝑚2 /V.s , 𝜇𝑝 = 1900 𝑐𝑚2 /V.s
Solution:
 For Silicium :
𝝈𝒊 (𝑻)=1,6.10-19 .(1350+480).1,45.1010 = 4,24.10-6 Ω−1 . cm−1
And 𝜌𝑖 = 1ൗ𝝈𝒊 (𝑇) = 0,23. 106 Ω. 𝑐𝑚
 For Germanium :
𝝈𝒊 (𝑻)=1,6.10-19 .(3900+1900). 2,4. 1013 = 22,27 .10-3 Ω−1 . cm−1
And 𝜌𝑖 = 1ൗ𝝈𝒊 (𝑇) = 0,04. 103 Ω. 𝑐𝑚
C- Carrier concentrations (Concentration des porteurs):
In semiconductors, free electrons and holes are the carries that provide conduction. For cases where the number
of carriers are much less than the number of band states, the carrier concentrations can be approximated by using
Boltzman statistics, giving the results below.
 E𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝒏 ∶
𝑬𝒄 −𝑬𝑭
The free-electron concentration n can be approximated by 𝒏 = 𝑵𝒄 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − (2.4)
𝒌𝑩 𝑻

Where: Ec is the energy of the conduction band

EF is the energy of the Fermi level
KB is the Boltzmann constant
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvins
Nc is the effective density of states at the conduction band edge given by
𝟑ൗ
𝟐𝝅𝒎∗𝒆 𝑲𝑩 𝑻 𝟐
𝑵𝒄 = 𝟐 , With 𝑚𝑒∗ beging the electron effective mass 9.11 × 10−31 kg
𝒉𝟐

h : being the planck constant

  Hole 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝒑 ∶
The free-hole concentration p can be approximated by
𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝒗
𝒑 = 𝑵𝑽 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − (2.5)
𝒌𝑩 𝑻

Where: EV is the energy of the valence band

EF is the energy of the Fermi level
KB is the Boltzmann constant
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvins
Nv is the effective density of states at the vanlence band edge given by

∗ 𝟑ൗ
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒉 𝑲𝑩 𝑻 𝟐
𝑵𝑽 = 𝟐 , With 𝑚ℎ∗ being the hole effective mass 9.11 × 10−31 kg
𝒉𝟐

h : being the planck constant

  M𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐋𝐚𝐰 :
In electronics and semiconductor physics, the law of mass action relates the concentrations of free electrons and
holes.
𝒏. 𝒑 = 𝒏𝟐𝒊 (constant value)

𝑬𝒈
𝒏𝒑 = 𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝑽 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − (2.6)
𝑲𝑩 𝑻

Where Eg is the band gap energy given by 𝑬𝒈 = 𝑬𝒄 − 𝑬𝑽

D- The Fermi energy EF:
 The Fermi energy is in the middle of the band gap (Ec + Ev)/2
 For an intrinsic semiconductor, every time an electron moves from the
valence band to the conduction band, it leaves a hole behind in the valence
band. The density of electrons in the conduction band equals the density of
holes in the valence band.

(2.7)