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5 Ansichten26 Seiten

PDF 035

a chemstry revsn materal paper

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biancabulala0010
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NON - METALS CHLORINE Chlorine is one of the Group Vil halogen elements, Laboratory preparation of CHLORINE gas Chlorine is prepared by OXIDIZING chloride ions in concentrated hydrochloric acid using a suitable oxidizing agent Two common oxidizing agents used are manganese (IV) oxide, MnO2, and potassium manganate (Vil), KMaQ THCH) + 2KMnO,) 92KCKs) + IMnClyfoq) + SCL) + BH,OC) Frarecione Trbyogen chine —_/ \\ trtosors aad! mate | conus —f.) rysostioncaca 4 || gest || ee Q.4: Explain why this experiment should be carried out ina fume cupboard Properties of CHLORINE © Apale yellow — green gas © Anoxidizing agent © Bleaches coloured materials ie. turns damp blue litmus red, then bleaches it © Itis@ very poisonous has © Itis denser than air ‘© Ithas choking, unpleasant smell Test for chlorine it turns damp blue litmus paper red, then bleaches it Bleaching action of CHLORINE. In the presence of water, CHLORINE forms two acids = Hypochlorous acid or chloric acid, HCIO(aq) and Hydrochloric acid, HCI(aq) Ch(g) + Hz0() > HCIOGa) + HCKaq) Hypochlorous acid slowly decomposes to liberate oxygen to the dye forming a colourless compound Tris process is speeded by light HCIO(aq) + dye —> (dye+0) + HOI The oxygen bleaches dye by oxidizing them Q 2: Explain why dry chiorine will not bleach Q 3: Explain the dye material should be washed with water after it has been bleached Uses of CHLORINE 4. For sterilizing (killing harmful microorganisms) in tap water 2. Manufacture of plastic like PVC used in water pipes: 3... Manufacture of domestic chemicals lke domestic bleaches, and disinfectants Manufacture of CHLORINE using ELECTROLYSIS Chlorine is extracted from sodium chloride. In Botswana, sodium chloride is found in underground water mixed with sodium carbonate brine i (Gerais) Nach a oe Lom psn ie sigoron Falta + catia ot | ‘contains HO, Na’ DH | water 7 on | \eo (On andsome CF) | scum | ae J chloride y en stan anode Importance of sodium chloride © Its a major component in the salt we use in food © Itis used to prepare chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen gas on a large scale NITROGEN ‘Most of the nitrogen is found in the air as nitrogen gas, Ne Nitrogen gas is an inert gas (unreactive) due to its triple covalent bond; therefore a lot of energy will be needed to break the bond, ‘THE INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF AMMONIA — HABER PROCESS + Ammonia is made from nitrogen and hydrogen in a process known as the Haber Process + Nitrogen is obtained from air by a method called FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION + Hydrogen is obtained from natural air by reacting natural gas CH. with steam over a catalyst ie. nickel CH. + HO —$ CO + 3H + The conditions of the Haber Process are i ‘a pressure of 200 atmospheres ii, a temperature of 450°C ii, anton catalyst Nolg) + 3He(g) = 2NHa(g) AH = -189kd a HW ay DP NITROGEN GAS. tron catalyst HYDROGEN Gas ammonia is cooled to become Tiguia oun AMMONIA ‘unreacted nivvogen fang nyarogen \ ca re =e oe wl USES OF AMMONIA + Most of the ammonia made is used to make fertilizers (urea, ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate) + Some is converted to nitric acid = Liquid ammonia is used in large scale refrigerating plants e.g. in ships and warehouses Ammonia solution is also used in laundry work to remove temporary hardness, a oF Chemicals FLL ci ents ya toes TEST FOR AMMONIA ‘Action on red litmus ~ Expose the damp red litmus paper to the gas Result = Ittums blue PROPERTIES = Colourless Less dense than air SULPHUR ‘The element SULPHUR is yellow solid found in Group V1, with a low meting point 119°C, ‘Sources of SULPHUR, Found as a free element in the ground (in United States) Found combined with metals as metal sulphides, ie. in zinc, copper. ‘Some is found in coal, petroleum and natural gas PREPARATION OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE concentrated | sulphuric acid concentrated auiphorie aeia to dry the gas ‘The reaction starts as soon as the mixture becomes hot. Effervescence occurs and sulphur dioxide, being very soluble in water and denser than air collected as shown Culs) + 2H:SOx(aq) —> CuSOds) + 2H.0") + SOx(9) [A dark brown mixture is leftin the flask Important USES of SULPHUR DIOXIDE = Used as a to bleach wood pulp before being turned into paper in the paper industry = Used to preserve food such as in bottled food, especially after the bottle has been opened CONTACT PROCESS This is the manufacture of sulphuric acid from sulphur ‘Stage 4: sulphur is burt in arto give sulphur dioxide S{s) + Ox) > SOx9) ‘Stage 2: sulphur dioxide and air are reacted in the presence of vanadium (V) oxide catalyst, at a temperature of about 450°C to give sulphur trioxide 28049) + Oxg) = 280s(9) AH = -189kd In theory the maximum amount of sulphur trioxide is obtained when Low temperature is used © Athigh pressure ‘At low temperature, the reaction will be slow, so a temperature of around 450°C is used increase the rate Stage 3: Sulphur trioxide is first dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form OLEUM SOx{g) + HsSO.(aq) —> HeS:0r(a9) ‘Stage 4: Which is then diluted with water to form more concentrated acid HeS.0x(aq) + H:0(eq) — /te CF Au, Sy The method below, involves. —— reaction of sulphur trioxide with water but is not preferred as sulphur trioxide react violently with water to make sulphuric acid stage Stage? stages (S - Ss - Ss IMPORTANT USES OF SULPHURIC ACID > Inthe manufacture of fetiizers such as ammonium sulphate (ammonia and sulphuric acid), and ‘superphosphate > Inthe manufacture of soap and detergents Used in car batteries a Used as a dehydrating agent CARBON AND CARBONATES CARBON Carbon exists in several allotropic modifications. Two of those are diamond and graphite ‘Allotropes are different forms of the same element, The atoms have different arrangements DIAMOND tevanedron diamond crystal the shaded portions show the tetrahedral arrangement the carbon atom in the centre is joined to four others at the corners Diamond has a macromolecular structure in the form of tetrahedral crystal In the crystal All the atoms are joined together by very strong covalent bonds Each atom is joined to four others in a tetrahedral arrangement, which when cut and polished creates an ‘amazing luster (making them look valuable) therefore used to make JEWELLERY Diamond is very hard hence used forthe following = Drills (rock borers) = Insaws i.e. in cutting glass GRAPHITE AN? arrangement o toms in one layer arrangement of layers Graphite exists as black slippery, hexagonal crystal. Itis found naturally, 28 plumbago (perennial plant) and is manufactured artificial by heating coke to high temperatures in an electric fumace In graphite: + The carbon atoms are arranged in flat layers = Each atom in a layers joined to three atoms by strong covalent bonds, the free extra electron allows {graphite to conduct electricity ~ Weak forces exist between the layers, allowing the layers to slide over each other Uses of graphite - Inpencil leads - As alubsicant in particularly in small bearings CARBONATES Carbonates are regarded as salts of carbonic acid, H»COs (aq) formed when carbon dioxide reacts with water. They contain carbonate ion, COs" KsCOs Carbonates of these do Carbonates Any carbonate with NaiCOs not decompose on heating soluble any acid iberates cacos carbon dioxide [TEST Mgcos Carbonates of these metals Carbonates FOR THE PRESENCE Al(COs decompose on heal, to give insoluble in water OF CARBONATE] 2nCOs oxides ofthe metals FeCOs PoCOs and carbon dioxide gas cucos ‘Ammonium carbonate is also soluble in water USES OF SODIUM CARBONATE (SODA ASH) a. Manufacture of glass NaxCOs + SiO, —> NarSi0; + C02 In domestic water softening ie. ion exchange USES OF LIMESTONE Manufacture of glass Manufacture of cement Extraction of iron from blast furnace Manufacture of slacked lime and quick ime (used to neutralize acidic soils) Removal of sulphur dioxide from coal power stations (reacted with CaCOs or Ca(OH):) ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ORGANIC CHEMISTRY is the study of carbon compounds except for very simple ones e.g. carbon dioxide, ‘carbon monoxide and metal carbonates, ‘THE STRUCTURE & BONDING OF CARBON COMPOUNDS In organte compounds, the bands are covalent and the carbon atoms exhibit valence of four) © Carbon atoms can form many compounds because carbon can join in many ways eg. straight / branched chains, and sings 1. Straight chains ‘This molecule has a chain of 5 carbon atoms, [Butane] 2 Branched chains. Here 6 carbon atoms form 3 branched chain 3. Rings Here a chain of 6 carbon atoms has formes ring, ‘THE HOMOLOGOUS SERIES ‘The family of carbon compounds is sometimes the HOMOLOGOUS SERIES The members of the family are often related Examples of the homologous series Alkanes Alkenes Alkanols / alcohols Alkanoic / carboxylic acids Esters Ethers Amines ete PROPERTIES WITHIN THE HOMOLOGOUS SERIES ‘a. The compounds in the series have the same general formula € 9. Alkanes CoHon +2 Alkenes CoH Alkanols CoHtan «sO, et b. The formula of one member in the series differs from the formula of the next member by CH All the compounds in the series have similar chemical properties d. There is @ gradual change in the physical properties of compounds in the series as the number of carbons in the molecules increases 6.9. No. of carbon Relative joms in | Chemical | Molecular | molecular Structural formula fone molecule | name | formula | mass ‘of one molecule # 1 methane 6 HAC-H 162 | gas 1 ez ft 2 thane 30 89 as ae 3 propane oH 2 | 4 butane CH, | 88 08 eas | 5 pentane on, | 7 36 | | 6 hexane oH, | 86 69 | liquid | 7 heptane CH, 100 98 liquid | 1 8 octane CH ua 136 liquid NAMING OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ‘The name is divided into two parts (a) the first pat tells the length and (b) the second part tells the chain type / end / functional group a. Chain length - emphasized by the number of carbon in the longest straight chain length No. of carbons chain name 1 Meth- Eth- Prop- But. Pent. Hex Hept oct Non- 0 Dec- Chain type /end / functional group ‘Alkanes ~ characterized by single Bonds between carbons, end wth ~ane Alkenes ~ contain one or more double between carbons, end wth -ene ‘Akanols — contain a hydroxy! group (-OH group) as a functional group), end with ~nol ‘Alkanoic acids ~ contain -COOH as a functional group, end with ~anoie acid HYDROCARBONS ‘This is a substance made up of only hydrogen and carbon atoms ONLY Examples Alkanes e.g. methane CHs, ethane CHs Alkenes e.g. ethene C:Hs, propene C:He Alkynes 9. ethyne CaHe A. ALKANES General formula’ Complete the table below up to heptanes Methane CHe methane Ethane C:He Propane CoHe Butane Pentane Hexane Heptane ISOMERS, ‘These are compounds that possess the same molecular, BUT having different molecular structures. Isomers of the same molecular formula have different physical and chemical properties because of their structural carbondioxide + — steam Exercise a2 Determine the balanced chemical equations for the complete combustion of alkanes up to butane NB: INCOMPLETE combustion ~ If an alkane bums in limited supply of air, carbon monoxide and steam will be produced Substitution reactions (only with saturated hydrocarbons) ~ Alkanes react with halogens or group Vil gases Example - chiorine gas in the presence of light as a catalyst react with alkanes (photo catalytic reactions) CHa(g) + — Chig) —* CHsCiig) + = HCI(g) MONOCHLOROMETHANE 4 a e 4 wet + Ge neon a 4 4 If chlorine isin excess, dichloromethane, tricloromethane, and tetrachloromethane may be formed. le CHCl + Ch > CHC + HCI CHich + Ch — CHCh + Hel CHCh + Ch —> CCh + Hel Exercise a3 Determine equations for the frst 3 reactions of bromine with ETHANE and give names of compounds formed ‘CRUDE OIL [PETROLEUM] “This a mixture of different chemical substances, with HYDROCARBONS as their main constituents ©The liquids are separated by a process called FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION as they have different boiling points © Crude oll is heated in a furnace © Vapours rise up the fractionating colurnn until they are cool enough to condense ‘After distilation, impurities such as sulphur are removed and used to make sulphuric acid Telney eas ac (Boa a etn cars (pert ‘aphihe Urea to make chemi FRACTIONATING Tower sed sta ful injetngines, sedi wove and panes auc =—-= ‘ied to make Blumen for Sorta roads Uses of important fractions > Natural gas / Liquefied petroleum gas — usually used as a fuel for cooking, and it mainly comprises of methane gas > Petrol / Gasoline — used as fuel for motor cars > Naphtha ~ used to make chemicals ie solvents Kerosene — used as fuel for jet engines Paraffin — used as a heating oil > Diesel cil - used in internal combustion of diesel type engines e.g. trucks, tractors, trains etc > Lubricating oll- used as a lubricant for machinery, also used to make petroleum jelly, waxed and polishes > Bitumen / asphalt ~ used to surface roads B. ALKENES General Formula Complete up to hex Propene CoHe Butene Cae Hex-1-ene Isomers of alkenes ‘The alkenes also have isomers, depending on where the double bond has been placed along the straight chain Give the isomers of butene and pentene [by switching the double bond between carbons) Manufacture of Alkenes Ethene is made through a process called CRACKING CRACKING ‘This is a process by which large molecules of hydrocarbons are converted into smaller and more useful molecules. {All cracking methods give: a. Analkene and an alkane which is shorter than the original alkane b. Two of more alkenes with a hydrogen molecule Examples of Cracking decane, Cols: 4 pentane, sty, propene, Stable for petrol ee CieHay —> Cote + Cotte CicHn > Cet + CicHar CsHie > 2methylpentane + ethane CisHoy —> Cette + CrHeo + He ‘The mixtures of cracking products (alkenes and alkanes) are separated through fractional distillation ‘There are two methods of cracking namely THERMAL AND CATALYTIC 4. Thermal Cracking “This is whereby a large alkane is broken down at very high temperatures of about 700°C at atmospheric pressures of about 30atm 2. Catalytic Cracking ‘This is carried out at temperatures of around 500°C, pressure of 1atm and MAINLY in the presence of SILICON DIOXIDE and ALUMINIUM OXIDE as catalysts CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALKENES 4. Combustion ‘Alkenes burnin air (oxygen gas) to form carbon dioxide and steam Exercise b1 a. Give balanced equations with state symbols for the complete combustion of Ethene 0 Propene and © Butene b. Why do alkenes burn with more smoke as compared to when buming alkanes 2. Addition reactions “These involves two reactant molecules combining to form a single compound withthe breaking of a double ora triple bond covalent bond between carbon atoms eg. CH=CH + X-X > CHX-CHX Unsaturated saturated ‘a. Hydrogenation [addition of hydrogen to an alkene} Catalyst — nickel metal at 20006 CHe=CHe + H-H —> CHb-CHs Unsaturated saturated Exercise bt Give balanced equations for the hydrogenation of (i) propene, (i) butene and (i) pentene b. Hydration [addition of water to an alkene to glve an alkanol} Catalyst ~ phosphoric acid at 600°C and 60 atm pressure CHe=CH; + H-OH —> CHs-CHOH Ethene ethanol BPC 0H, ethanol ethene team phoxphorets seul catalys Chi HOw CHONG) HOON HH c= + H-OH H-C-C-H a Hoo HOH Tris reaction is used as the laboratory preparation of ethanol ‘c. Halogenations e.g. Bromination and chlorination [addition of a halogen to an alkene] CH=CH: + Br-Br 9 > CH:Br—CH:Br Ethene 41, 2 dibromo-ethane N +t: fag) —— HE w (orange) be ke ethene 1 2- polymer Example: the polymerization of ethene SATURATED HYDROCARBONS ‘These are compounds containing single covalent C — C bonds. Each carbon atom shows a valence of 4, and the bonds not used in the chain are linked to hydrogen atoms. Example: alkanes Propane: CHs— CH» ~ CHa UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS ‘These are compounds which contain at least a double covalent C = C bond Example: alkenes and alkynes TEST FOR UNSATURATION Bromine water is used For alkanes, the colour of bromine water rem: For alkenes, bromine water is decolourised, ie it changes from brown to colourless ns brown or orange C. ALKANOLS (ALCOHOLS) General Formula: Complete up to hexanol ce Ere! Ero Methanol ‘CH:OH Ethanol CaHs 0H Propanol CsHyOH Manufacture of Ethanol 1. Catalytic addition of steam to ethene Catalyst and conditions: phosphoric acid, 600°C at 60 atm pressure: CH=CH, + H-OH —+ CHs—[Link] CH + HO cH aon HH ee # HOH Hoc-C-8 Heel HOW En 2. Fermentation Carbohydrates such as simple sugars and starch ANAEROBICALLY broken down by an enzyme zymase (enzyme found in yeast to give ethanol and carbon dioxide CsHi0s > 2CaHSOH + 2602 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ETHANOL [ALKANOLS] 1. Combustion (burning in excess of air ~ oxygen gas) CHOH + Or FCO, + asa Complete the balanced equations for the formation of () propanol and (i) butanol 2. Oxidation i.e. when wine or beer is exposed to air Catalysts: potassium dichromate (KaCr20;) when acidified in dilute sulphuric acid CHO + 210] + 2CH;COOH + H.0 Ethanoie acid Uses of ethanol © Solvent for medical purposes and in perfumes Source of fuel e.g. when mixed with petrol © Asa constituent of beer and wine ‘© Disinfectant when treating wounds D, ALKANOIC ACIDS (CARBOXILLIC ACIDS) General formula Complete up to pentanoic acid feu en Breton Methanoic acid HCOOH, Ethanoic acid (CHs COOH Propanoic acid CsHsCOOH ~o—n Oxidation of ethanol in the presence of Formation of Ethanoic acid (lab preparation) acidified as a reducing agent [potassium permanganate can altematively be used] CaHsOH + 2{0] — 2CH:COOH + H:0 (Ears ac na a tout yo) —Hec-€ + HO HH hh o-w, exo id op Ethanoic acid is a weak, and therefore undergoes incomplete ionization, and the equilibrium is DYNAMIC. CH:COOH > «CHCOO + HY Esterificat nm ‘This is the formation of an ester © An alcohol reacts with an Alkanoic acid in the presence of an of few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid Example: the reaction between Ethanoic acid and ethanol to ethy! ethanoate (ester) and water CH;COOH + C2HsOH —> G:Hs[COOICHs + H.0 Other examples of common ALKANOIC ACIDS and their uses ‘a, Aspirin - used as a painkiller and reduces the rate of heart attack b. Ascorbic acid ~ also known as vitamin C, helps in protection against diseases [Link] acid — found in citric fruits such as lemons and oranges and also @ good source of vitamin C 4. Tattaric acid — found in baking powder, helps in raising dough MACROMOLECULES ‘These are large molecules, and are divided into two types, namely natural and synthetic molecules POLYMERS — These are large organic macromolecules made of repeating units called MONOMERS POLYMERISATION - Linking together small and simple molecules to form large units called polymers. ‘There are two types of polymers namely: ‘Addition and condensation polymers, which can be divided into synthetic and natural polymers A. SYNTHETIC / MANMADE MACROMOLECULES 4. ADDITION POLYMERS ~ They involve addition of one substance to another to form a single substance Oricon ene nese ah sen abe pr ofa ey iy me Examples of ADDITION POLYMERS ae {.. tn Peleon ae, - @ pepegeee we DL LR LL LE i Ob-mndkicr Uses and Properties of common ADDITION POLYMERS [Ptastic ‘Monomer Polytethene) | CH,=CH: Poly(propene) CH,CH=CH, pve cH, ~cHer PTFE cF.=cF: | | | | | i | Polystyrene CH; =CHC«Hy Perspex ne (CO2CH CH, Properties Tough, durable Tough. durable Strong, hard (less flexible than polyfethene)) Non-stick surtace, withstands high temperatures Light, poor conductor of heat Transparent with the removal of SMALL MOLECULES e.g. water, HCl etc Examples of CONDENSATION POLYMERS Teryiene (POLYESTER) Careier bags, bowls buckets, packaging Ropes, packaging electrical insulation, guttering Non-stick frying pans, soles of irons packaging Kespecially as foam) Used as 2 glass eubstiture CONDENSATION POLYMERS ~ Two or more molecules [monomers] react to form a large molecule (polymer), Contain an ESTER LINKAGE with the removal of water as another product. Monomer 1 Ethane 1, 2 diol (alcohol) fiest monomer has alcohol functional Benzene ‘Monomer 2 . 4 dioe acid (Alkanoic acid) second monomer groups ‘er0UpS ©. ~ + oem 0, eae . a) forms a water n molecule an ester link polymer (polyester) ° ° ° I i il ° 1 a » has carboxylic acid functional ° Co co fem-0o— ¢ SC 0 0 +H,0 +H,0 Nylon (POLYAMIDE) Contain an AMIDE LINKAGE with the removal of water molecules Monomer 1 Monomer 2 41, 6 diamino hexane (amine) Hexane 1, 6 dioie acid (Alkanoic acid) first monomer second monomer (diamine) dicarboxylic 18d) same go" (peptide) ink polymer (polyamide) ° aye ° 9 i Co CN em No pea ae oI Uses of manmade fiores . * >) \nates eon doping oes and fehinginas (aks , sa Cinkt) gam ode > Terylene : clothing, bost sails and fishing lines Impact of manmade (synthetic) flores to the environment ‘They cause pollution e.g, plastics are not decomposed by bacteria or corrosion. ‘They are non bio degradable B. NATURAL MACROMOLECULES ‘These are large molecules (macromolecules) which exist naturally such as fats, carbohydrates and proteins, Most of the natural macromolecules are constituents if food 1. Proteins These are complex compounds that are made of Carbon, Nitrogen and Oxygen as the only elements. They are from ‘amino acid monomers Each amino acid that is used in building up proteins contains -NHe and COOH as the functional groups 4 4 ° on i 4 n—e—c : n—e—c 1 , 1 ‘, 4 oH by, on aycne alanine forms a water peptide link ny Ho 4 ° Nb Ed (4 N—-e-be—Ntome + M0 aan (ed ee 4 4 Ho 3 dipeptide ‘When proteins are hydrolysed or broken down, they give amino acids [REVERSE OF CONDENSATION ~ HYDROLYSIS} amino acids hydrolysis condensation Guo) CHO ‘Separation of mixtures of hydrolysis of PROTEINS ‘The different amino can be separated by a process called chromatography LOCATING AGENTS are used in this process. When the substance is analysed, the substances appear colourless con the chromatagram. Then locating agent then form a coloured compound withthe colouriess amino acid when itis ‘sprayed onto the chromatogram to identify them. ‘An example of a locating agent used is NINHYDRIN, and is used in detecting the presence of amino acids e.g. in forensic science Rf — [Retention Factor] given by the following equation = distance moved ty the subtanee RE = “Gitance moved by he solvent ° 6 8 (sp i sg ine Chramatogram of sugars sn frat juice a pure sus 2. Carbohydrates Examples of carbohydrate are sucrose {CrsHz:Orr], glucose {CsH120x, cellulose and starch, Glucose and sucrose fare examples of simple sugars while cellulose and starch are examples of complex (long) molecules HYDROLYSIS [breaking up] of complex molecules such as cellulose and starch give simple sugars. Hydrolysis is usually done in the presence of hot concentrated sulphuric acid [CeHieOs] + HO => [CsHio0:}, acid hydrotysis monomer polymer many sugar monomers (e.g, glucose molecules) elimination of water between molecules a polysaccharide {e.g starch) -0-S35}+- 0-0“ 3. Fats ‘These are esters having the same linkage as Terylene, but with different units of hyrocarbons Preparation of Soap (saponification) tai win \ sodium yaronice solution giycerci soap (GOH alechot

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