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Enthalpy Changes

Das Dokument beschreibt die Standardenthalpieänderungen unter definierten Bedingungen, einschließlich der Enthalpieänderungen von Reaktionen wie Bildung, Verbrennung und Neutralisation. Es erklärt die Messmethoden zur Bestimmung dieser Änderungen, insbesondere durch Kalorimetrie, und gibt Beispiele für spezifische Reaktionen und deren Enthalpiewerte. Zudem werden die Berechnungen zur Bestimmung der Enthalpieänderungen anhand von Experimenten detailliert erläutert.

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8 Ansichten10 Seiten

Enthalpy Changes

Das Dokument beschreibt die Standardenthalpieänderungen unter definierten Bedingungen, einschließlich der Enthalpieänderungen von Reaktionen wie Bildung, Verbrennung und Neutralisation. Es erklärt die Messmethoden zur Bestimmung dieser Änderungen, insbesondere durch Kalorimetrie, und gibt Beispiele für spezifische Reaktionen und deren Enthalpiewerte. Zudem werden die Berechnungen zur Bestimmung der Enthalpieänderungen anhand von Experimenten detailliert erläutert.

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twentysevendunmore
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© All Rights Reserved
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eee Cn Ped Ren Standard enthalpy changes Standard conditions ‘To make any comparison of enthalpy changes a fair ‘comparison, we must use the same conditions. These are «called standard conditions: 1m pressure of10°Pa (10° Pais 100kPa, approximately normal atmospheric pressure) m atemperature of 298K (25°C) (add 273 to the Celsius temperature to convert a temperature into kelvin) 1 cach substance involved the reaction sin its normal physical state (solid, quid or gas) at 10"Pa and 298K. ‘The symbol & indicates that the enthalpy change refers to a reaction carried out under standard conditions. ‘The information in the equation: CH,(g) + 20,(g) — CO,(g) + 24,00) AH? = -890.3k] mol"! shows us that when one mole of methane gas reacts with ‘two moles of oxygen gas to form one mole of carbon dioxide gas and two moles of water in the liquid state the n standard enthalpy change is -890.3k}mol"!. Avariety of enthalpy changes We can describe enthalpy changes according to the type ‘of chemical reaction taking place. For example: enthalpy change of formation enthalpy change of combustion enthalpy change of neutralisation enthalpy change of solution enthalpy change of atomisation enthalpy change of hydration. In more general cases we can use the term: '= enthalpy change of reaction. Standard enthalpy change of reaction, AH® ‘The symbol for standard enthalpy change of reaction is AH®. Enthalpy changes of reaction can be exothermic orendothermic. ‘The equation that describes the reaction must be given. For example, the equation: H,(g) + $0,() > H,0W) AH? =-286K mot! shows us the enthalpy change when one mole of water is formed from hydrogen and oxygen. In this case 286K] of| energy are released, However, ifwe write the equation as 2H,(g) + Og) —> 2H,0() AH’ =-572Kjmot ‘two moles of water are formed from hydrogen and oxygen. In this case 572K) of energy are released. Standard enthalpy change of formation, AH? ‘The symbol for standard enthalpy change of formation is ‘AH®. Enthalpy changes of formation can be exothermic or endothermic, We write the formula of the compound in square brackets after AH? to help us when we do calculations involving enthalpy changes. Examples are: 2Fe(6) + 130,(g) — Fe,0,(9) AH Fe, 0,6 824.2) mol" ‘C(graphite) + 28(s) — CS,(1) AHFICS,(D 498.7 ki mol Note that the state symbol for carbon is shown as ‘graphite’ Tis is because there are several forms of carbon but the most stable is graphite and we choose the ‘most stable form when writing equations where enthalpy changes are shown. By definition, the standard enthalpy change of formation of any element in its standard state is zero. Standard enthalpy change of combustion, AH® ean ead ‘The symbol for standard enthalpy change of combustion is AH®. Enthalpy changes of combustion are always ‘exothermic, The substances combusted can be either elements or compounds. S() + 0,(g) — S0,(8) AH? [S(9]| = -296.8k) mo? CH(g) + 20,@) — COs) + 2H,00) AH®(CH,(g)] = 890.34) mol? Note that the first equation can be considered as either the ‘enthalpy change of combustion of sulfur or the enthalpy ‘change of formation of sulfur dioxide. Cod 3. Classify each ofthe following reactions. as aH®,aH® or AH®: ‘a MgCO,(s) —> MgO{s} + CO,(g) b C(graphite) + 0,(g) —> CO,(¢) ¢HClg) + Nig) —> NHC) Hale) + 30,(@) —> H,0(0, Standard enthalpy change of neutralisation, AH? For example: HClaq) + NaOH(aq) —> NaCllag) + H,0() AHS =-7.1kJmot! For any acid-alkali reaction the ionic equation is H*(aq) + OH"(aq) — H,0() “The other ions in solution (Clr and Na*) are spectator ions and take no part in the reaction (see page 13). Standard enthalpy change of solution, AH2, An infinitely dilute solution is one that does not produce any further enthalpy change when more solvent is added. ‘An example isthe addition of a small amount of solid sodium hydroxide to a large amount of water. NaOH() + aq —> NaOH(aq) ‘We use known amounts of solute and solvent with the solvent in excess to make sure that al the solute dissolves. Standard enthalpy change of atomisation, AH®. ‘The standard enthalpy change of atomisation of hydrogen relates to the equation: Hg) > Hig) AHS [} i,(g)] = #218KJ mol Standard enthalpy change of hydration of an anhydrous salt For example: Na,$,0,(6) + 5H,0(1) —> Na,S,0,5H,06) AH 5.0K] mol"! ‘This should not be confused with the standard enthalpy change of hydration of gaseous ions to form aqueous ions (ee page 265 for this material, which is not required for AS level). eee Cn Ped Ren Measuring enthalpy changes We can measure the enthalpy change of some reactions by different techniques. These are outlined in the “Measuring enthalpy changes’ box. Pend nakeausd Calorimetry We can measure the enthalpy change of some reactions by a technique called calorimetry. The apparatus used is called a calorimeter. Asimple calorimeter can be a polystyrene drinking cup (Figure 6.5), a vacuum flask or a metal can. _thermometer (reading 002°C) plastid Figure 6.5 A polystyrene cup can actas a calorimeter for finding some enthalpy changes. When carrying out experiments in calorimeters we use known amounts of reactants and known volumes. of liquids, We also measure the temperature change of the liquid inthe calorimeter asthe reaction occurs. The thermometer should be accurate to 0.1 oF 0.2°C., Calorimetry relies on the fact that t takes 4.18. of energy to increase the temperature of 1g of water by 1°C. The energy required to raise the temperature of 1g ofa liquid by 1°C is called the specific heat capacity, c, ofthe liquid. So, the specific heat capacity of water is 4.18.) ¢1°C7. The energy transferred as heat (the enthalpy change) is given by the relationshi wv mcAT where: ‘His the enthalpy change, in J ‘mis the mass of water, in g cis the specific heat capacity, in Jg°C* ATis the temperature change, in°C ‘As cm? of water weighs 1g, we can substitute volume of water in cm? of water for mass of water in gin the equation. Aqueous solutions of acids, alkalis and salts are assumed to be largely water. With solutions we make the assumptions that: ‘Lem? of solution hasa mass of 1g the solution has the same specific heat capacity as water. Note: Arise in temperature is given a positive sign. So the value of AH is negative for an exothermic reaction, fall in temperature is given a negative sign. So the value of AH is positive for an endothermic reaction. The enthalpy change of neutral ‘experiment We can find the enthalpy change of neutralisation of sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid by mixing equal volumes of known equimolar concentrations of acid and alkali together in a polystyrene cup. Atypical procedure for the reaction above s as follows. n by 1. Place 50cm? of .0moldm’3 hydrochloric acid in the cup and record its temperature. 2. Add 50cm? of 1.0 mold’ sodium hydroxide (at the ‘same temperature) tothe acid in the cup. 3 Stirthe reaction mixture with the thermometer and record the highest temperature. In this experiment most ofthe heat is transferred to ‘the solution, as the polystyrene cup is a good insulator. Cooling of the warm solution is not a great problem: the reaction is rapid so the maximum temperature is reached before much cooling of the warm solution has occurred. However, there are still heat losses to the air and to the thermometer, which make the result less exothermic than the data book value of -57.1 kJ mol”. Results and calculation mass of solution = 100g (S0cm? of acid plus 50cm? of alkali and assuming that 10cm? of solution has a mass of 1.0) ean ead Pe anak aud Cont) specificheat capacity = 4.18.Jg7°C* (assuming that the heat capacity of the solution is the same as the heat capacity of water) starting temperature of = 21.3°C reactant solutions final temperature of | = 27.8°C product solution temperature rise = 465°C use therelationship AH heat energy released -meAT 1004.18 « 6.5: -2a73 Atthe start, the reaction mixture contained 50cm? of 1.0moldm- hydrochloric acid and Soc? of LOmoldm? sodium hydroxide. The number of moles of each (and of the water formed) is calculated using concentrationxvolume (in cm?) _ 1, 1000 0x50 1000 .050 moles So 2717 J of energy was released by 0.050 moles of acid. Therefore for one mole of acid (forming one mole of, water] the energy released was 2m Hosp = -[Link]” -54kJmol" (to2. nificant figures). The negative sign shows that the reaction is exothermic. Enthalpy change of solution by experiment The enthalpy change of solution of sodium hydroxide can be found using a polystyrene cup as a calorimeter. We use known amounts of solute and, solvent with the solvent in excess to make sure that all the solute dissolves. The procedure is: 1 Weigh an empty polystyrene cup. 2. Pour 100cm? of water into the cup and weigh the cup and water, 3 Record the steady temperature of the water with a thermometer reading to atleast the nearest 0.2°C. 4 Add a few pellets of sodium hydroxide (corrosive!) which have been stored under dry conditions. 5 Keep the mixture stirred continuously with a thermometer and record the temperature at fixed Intervals, e.g, every 20 seconds. 6 Keep recording the temperature for S minutes after the ‘maximum temperature has been reached. 7 Weigh the cup and its contents to calculate the mass of sodium hydroxide which dissolved. Results and calculations mass of polystyrene cup = 23.00g mass of polystyrene cup + water = 123.45 mass of water = 100458 mass of cup + water+ sodium hydroxide = 124.95g mass of sodium hydroxide that dissolved = 1.508, initial temperature of water = 18.0°C final temperature of water = 216°C temperature rise = 86°C From the results, 1.50 of sodium hydroxide dissolved in 100.45 em? (100.45) of water and produced a ‘temperature change of #3.6°C. enthalpy = (aes X specificheat x temperature] change (water capacity(in change (in) (ing) = gC") fin") (100.45 x 4.18 x36) 151157, 4.5kJ {to significant figures) ‘The enthalpy change fr 1.5g sodium hydroxide is -1.5kJ The enthalpy change for 1.0 mole of sodium hydroxide (M,=40gmol) 40 is-7px15k. 40kd AHS In this experiment we are assuming that the specific heat capacity of the solution is the same as the specific heat capacity of water. The heat losses in this. ‘experiment, however, are likely to be considerable because the sodium hydroxide takes some time to dissolve. This means that the reaction mixture has @ longer period of cooling. 40k mot! Finding the enthalpy change of combustion Experiment: the enthalpy change of combustion of propan-1-ol We can find the enthalpy change of combustion by burning a known mass of substance and using the heat released to raise the temperature of a known mass of water. The apparatus used for this consists ofa spirit burner and a metal calorimeter (Figure 6.6). eee Cn Ped Ren Penaeus nun) thermometer { metal (Gloeeter damp | ater | ste wick f ) alkane of cap for spi burmer ‘tol burner fue Figure 6.6 A simple apparatus used to find the enthalpy change of combustion of fuels. The procedure is: 1. Weigh the spirit burner containing propan-1-ol. The ‘cap on the burner must be kept on when the burner is notllitto avoid evaporation of the fuel. 2 Pour 10cm? (100g) of water into the calorimeter. For greater accuracy this should be weighed out. 3. Stirthe water and record its temperature with a thermometer reading to at least the nearest 0.1°C. 4 Place the spirit burner beneath the calorimeter, remove the cap and light the wick. The length of the wick should have been previously adjusted so that the material of the wick does not burn and the flame Just touches the bottom of the calorimeter. 5 Keep stirring the water with the thermometer until there is a temperature rise of about 10°C. Record this temperature, 4 a Calculate the energy transferred when the temperature of 75cm of water rises from 23°C to54°c, 1b When 8g of sodium chloride is dissolved in 40cm* cof water the temperature falls from 22°C to20.5°C. Calculate the energy absorbed by the solution when sodium chloride dissolves. € Astudent added 50cm? of sodium hydroxide to Socm? of hydrochloric acid. Both solutions were at 18°C to start with. When the solutions were mixed a reaction occurred. The temperature rose to 33°C. Calculate the energy released in this reaction. 6 Remove the spirit burner, place the cap on it and reweigh it. Results and calculations Tofind the standard enthalpy change of combustion we need to know: the mass of fuel burnt the temperature rise of the water the mass of the water the relative molecular mass of the fuel (propan--ol). 100g, 86.278 86.06g o2ig 309°C 20.2°C orc mass of water in calorimeter mass of spirit burner and propan-I-ol at start mass of spirit burner and propan-1-ol at end mass of propan-1-ol burnt initial temperature of water final temperature of water ‘temperature change of the water Using the relationship AH = -mcAT (mass of water x specific heat capacity of water x temperature change) energy released by burning 0.21. propanol =-(100 «4.18% 10.7) =-4472.6 the mass of 1 mole of propan-I-ol, C,H,OH, is 60g so for 60g propan 60 ol the energy released is, 4472.6 1277885.7 Jmol*'=-1300kJ mol"? 0.21 (to.2 significant figures) ‘Thisis much less than the data book value of -2021kJmot!, mainly due to heat losses to the surroundings. 5 Explain wy the enthalpy change of neutralstion of ne mole of sulfur acid, $0, isnot the standard enthalpy change ofneutralisation, 6 Astudentadded 10g (0.25mol of sodium hydroxide to 40cm? of water to make concentrated solution Allthe sodium hydroxide dissolved. He measured the maximum temperature rise. He suggested that these rests would ge an accuratevale forthe standard enthalpy change of Solution. Give two reasons why he sincorect. 7 Astudent calculated the standard enthalpy change of combustion of ethanol. [C,0H] by calorimetry as “sroksmol? The data book value is-1367kJ ma Explain the dference between these values Hess’s law Conserving energy ‘The Law of Conservation of Energy states that ‘energy ‘cannot be created or destroyed This is called the First Law ‘of Thermodynamics This law also applies to chemical reactions. The total ‘energy of the chemicals and their surroundings must remain constant. In 1840 Germain Hess applied the Law of, Conservation of Energy to enthalpy changes. Enthalpy cycles We can illustrate Hess's law by drawing enthalpy cycles (Hess cycles). In Figure 6.7 the reactants A and B combine Airectly to form C, This is the direct route. ‘Two indirect routes are also shown. One other way of changing A +B to Cisto convert A + B into different substances F + G (intermediates), which then combine to form C. ate ave | —_____¢ direct route + eZ Figure 6.7 The enthalpy change is the same no matter which routeis followed Hess’ law tells us that the enthalpy change of reaction for the direct route is the same as for the indirect route. It «does not matter how many steps there are in the indirect route. We can still use Hess's law. We can use Hess's law to calculate enthalpy ‘changes that cannot be found by experiments using calorimetry. For example, the enthalpy change of, formation of propane cannot be found by direct experiment because hydrogen does not react with carbon under standard conditions. Enthalpy change of reaction from enthalpy changes of formation ‘We can calculate the enthalpy change of reaction by using the type of enthalpy cycle shown in Figure 6.8. reactants products ‘hy Figure 6.8 An enthalpy cycle fr calculating an enthalpy change of reaction. The dashed line shows the indirect (two- step) route, ‘We use the enthalpy changes of formation of the reactants and products to calculate the enthalpy change of the reaction. We take note ofthe directions of the arrows to find the one-stage direct) and two-stage (indirect) routes. ‘When we use Hess's law we see that: AH, = iecteote So AH, = AH, - AH, To calculate the enthalpy change of reaction using this, type of enthalpy cycle we use the following procedure: 1 write the balanced equation atthe top 1 draw the cycle with elements atthe bottom 1 drawn all arrows, making sure they goin the correct directions 1 apply Hess aw, taking nto account the numberof moles ‘of each reactant and product. AH, + AH, lade re If there are 3 moles of a product, e.g. 3CO,(g), we must ‘multiply the enthalpy change of formation by 3. Also remember that the standard enthalpy change of formation cof an element in its standard state is zero, Renna 1. Calculate the standard enthalpy change for the reaction: 2NaHCO,(s) —> Na,CO,(9) + €0,(g) + H,0() ‘The relevant enthalpy changes of formation are: AH INaHCO,()]=-950.8kImol* AH? [Na,C0,6)]=-1120.7K4mol* 4H [CO,(g]] =-393.5kImol AHF (H,000) ean ead eee A een) Meera a ean) The enthalpy cycle is shown in Figure 6. Tacos) | a) C+ HOD ie Fa, c058) 2avncoys\ 4 | amtcogon Ae af 001 Na) + 2Cgrapite) +3030 + Hi) igure 6.9 The enthalpy cycle for the decomposition of, sodium hydrogencarbonate. The dashed line shows the two-step route. Using Hess's aw: ait ‘BH 7 Na,CO,G)] + BH? (CO,(8)) + O49 [4,010] 26H [NaHCO] + 04° 2(-950.8) +H, Hi, + BH, (113017) + (-393.5)+ (285.8) 1810.0 =-1901.6 + AH, SoH? =(-1810.0)-(-1901.6) = +91.6kJ mol" (forthe equation shown) Note: i thevalue for AH® [NaHCO,(s)] is multiplied by 2 because 2 moles of NaHCO, appear inthe equation the values for AH® [Na,CO,(]}, AH [CO,(g)] and ‘BH ?[H,0(0] are added together to give MH, Take care to account for the fact that some values may be positive and some negative. Cts 8 a Drawanenthalpy yceto calculate AY for the reaction 2A) + Fe,0,{) —> 2Fels) + ALO) Calculate AHusing the following information. ‘aH Fe,0,()] = -824.2kImot ‘4H? (Al0,(9] =-1675.7kImot" Enthalpy change of formation from enthalpy changes of combus' ‘We can calculate the enthalpy change of formation of ‘many compounds by using the type of enthalpy cycle shown in Figure 6.10 ements + oxygen ‘compound formed + onygen ‘Hy combustion products Figure 6.10 An enthalpy cycle for calculating an enthalpy ‘change of formation from enthalpy changes of combustion. The dashed line shows the two-step route. ‘We use the enthalpy changes of combustion of the reactants and products to calculate the enthalpy change of formation. When we take note ofthe direction of the arrows to find the one-stage (direct) and two-stage (indirect) routes and use Hess's law we see that: AH, AH, + AH, So AH, = AH, - AH, ‘To calculate the enthalpy change of formation using, this type of cycle: '= write the equation for enthalpy change of formation at the ‘top; add oxygen on both sides ofthe equation to balance ‘the combustion reactions 1m draw the cycle with the combustion products atthe bottom ‘= draw in all arrows, making sure they goin the correct directions 1 apply Hess's law, taking into account the number of moles ofeach reactant and product. Mencia 2 Caleulate the standard enthalpy change of formation ofethane, GH, The elevant enthalpy changes of combustion are: Cigraphite) + 0,(@) —> 0, ‘i [lgraphite]=-[Link]* H,(g) + 30,{8) —> 4,0(0 ‘4° ()}=-285.8ks mot Mele ataces nT) Hale) + 340,(2) —> 2C0,(g) + 3H,0()) AH [C,H,(g)]=-1559.7kI mot The enthalpy cycleis shown in Figure 6.11. mom yo oo Teer siow 2anetClaptito) + SMP i hy SEER 2€0,(@) + 34,00) Figure 6.11 The enthalpy cycle tofind the enthalpy change of formation of ethane using enthalpy changes of combustion. The dashed ine shows the two-step route, Using Hess's law: aH, = OH +OH, 2{-392.5) +3(-285.8) ‘aH, (-1859.7) -1644.4 oH,+ (1559.7) So AM,= -1644.4-(-1559.7) = -847kImot Ceo 9 a Drawanenthalpy cycle to calculate the enthalpy change of formation of ethanol, HOH, using ‘enthalpy changes of combustion. b Calculate value for AH [C,H,OH(] using the following data: ‘BH (Clgraphite)] =-393.5k Jmol ‘479 [H,()]=-285.8ks mol* ‘8H [,H,OH()]=-1367.3kImol* Calculating the enthalpy change of hydration of an anhydrous salt Hydrated salts such as hydrated copper(I) sulfate, CuSO, 5H,0, contain water molecules surrounding their ions. Iti very dificult to measure the enthalpy change when an anhydrous salt such as anhydrous sodiam thiosulfate becomes hydrated, Na,S,0,(9) + 5H,0(l) —> Na,S,0,5H,06) We can, however, use an enthalpy cycle to calculate this, ‘We use the standard enthalpy changes of solution to complete the enthalpy cycle (Figure 6.12). ean ead [anhydrous sal ite aqueous solution of sat ie 6.12. An enthalpy cycle to calculate the enthalpy change of hydration of an anhydrous salt. The dashed line shows the two-step route, Tic any ‘Hs ‘The enthalpy cycle for calculating the enthalpy of hydration of anhydrous sodium thiosulfate is shown in Figure 6.13, Ans Nay5:036) + 54,00) "sf Na5:0551,08) Sy aHteINaS:0369) 77 sth INaS,0554,065)] skim 2 S474kImot" Na5,03(20) Figure 6.13. An enthalpy cycle to calculate the enthalpy change when anhydrous sodium thiosulfateiis hydrated. The dashed line shows the two-step route. Using Hess's law: AH, = AHyg + AH, (78) = AHyg + (4474) $0 AH yg = (7.6) ~ (+47.4) = -55.0k] mol QUESTION +10 Suggest why its difficult to measure the enthalpy ‘change directly when an anhydrous salt is converted to ahydrated salt. Bond energies and enthalpy changes Bond breaking and bond making Enthalpy changes are due to the breaking and forming ofbonds. Breaking bonds requires energy. he energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces joining the atoms together. Energy is released when new bonds are formed. Bond breaking is endothermic and bond forming is exothermic. Ina chemical reaction: 1 ifthe energy needed to break bondsisless than the energy released when new bonds are formed, the reaction wll release energy ands exothermic. eee Cn eed Rees 1m ifthe energy needed to break bonds is more than the ‘energy released when new bonds are formed, the reaction will absorb energy and is endothermic. We can draw enthalpy level (reaction pathway) diagrams to show these changes (Figure 6.14). In reality, not all the bonds in a compound are broken and then re-formed during reaction. In most reactions only some ofthe bonds in the reactants are broken and then new bonds are formed ina specific sequence. The minimum energy required to break certain bonds in a compound to get a reaction to start is called the activation energy (see page 141). Bond energy ‘The amount of energy needed to break a specific covalent bond is called the bond dissociation energy. We sometimes call this the bond energy or bond enthalpy. The symbol for bond energy is E. We put the type of bond broken in brackets after the symbol. So E(C—H) refers to the bond energy ofa mole of single bonds between carbon and hydrogen atoms. ‘The bond energy for double and triple bonds refers to a mole of double or triple bonds. Two examples of equations relating to bond energies are: iad Br,(g) —> 2Br(g)__E(Br—Br) = +193 kJ mol"! 0=0(g) —> 20(g) E(O=0) = +498kI mol! ‘The values of bond energies are always positive because they refer to bonds being broken. ‘When new bonds are formed the amount of energy released is the same as the amount of energy absorbed ‘when the same type of bond is broken, So, for the formation of oxygen molecules from oxygen atoms: 20(g) — 0,8) C4 aH +40, bond forming WOH WA Reaction pathway Average bond energy Bond energy is affected by other atoms in the molecule. The ‘O—H bond in water hasa slightly diferent bond energy value to the O—H bond in ethanol; in ethanol the oxygen is connected to a carbon atom rather than another hydrogen atom, The O—H bond isin a different environment. Identical bonds in molecules with two (or more) types of bbond have different bond energies when we measure them. It takes more energy to break the first O—H bond in water than to break the second. For these reasons we use average bond energies taken from a number of bonds of the same type but in different environments. We cannot usually find the value of bond energies directly so we have to use an enthalpy cycle. The average bond energy of the C—H bond in methane ean be found using the enthalpy changes of atomisation of carbon and hydrogen and the enthalpy change of combustion or formation of methane ‘The enthalpy cycle for calculating the average C—H bond energy is shown in Figure 6.15. Using the enthalpy cycle shown in Figure 6.15, the average C—H bond energy can be found by dividing the value of AH on the diagram by four (because there are four C—H bonds in a molecule of methane). WH PIT amounts Clgraphite) + 2H.(g) Figure 6.15 An enthalpy cycle to find the average bond ‘energy of the CH bond, The dashed line shows the two-step route. bond forming H-H+Br—Br energy absorbed Readion pathway Figure 6.14 a An energy evel diagram showing bond breaking and bond forming for the combustion of methane (exothermic). bb Anenergy level diagram showing bond breaking and bond forming for the decomposition of hydrogen bromide (endothermic), ean ead od 11 Use the information in Figure 6.15 and the information below to show thatthe average bond energy ofthe CH bond is 415.9ks mot". ‘AH? (CH,|=-74.8kd mot HSH] ‘ax g(Cleraphite)| = 1716.7 kymol* Calculating enthalpy changes using bond energies ‘We can use bond enthalpies to calculate the enthalpy. ‘change of a reaction that we cannot measure directly, For example, the reaction for the Haber process (see page 129): Ny(g) + 3H,(g) — 2NH(g) “The enthalpy cycle for this reaction is shown in Figure 6.16. The relevant bond energies are: E(NSN) = 945K} mol E(H—H) = 4364) mol"! E(N—H) = 391 kJmol* ane sing Ng + Hg 4 ax 34-£N—H) 2Ng) + aha Figure 6.16 The enthalpy cycle for ammonia synthesis. The

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