4.

SUSPENSION SYSTEM AND BRAKES

Objectives and principles of suspension system, types, rigid axle and independent
suspension for front and rear ends, leaf spring, torsion bar, shock absorber Types of brake
systems-drum, disc, operation-mechanical, hydraulic, air brakes, servo and power braking,
ABS.

SUSPENSION SYSTEM
The chassis of vehicle is connected to the front and rear wheels through the medium of springs,
shock absorbers and axles. All parts perform the function of protecting parts from shocks are
known as suspension system.
The automobile chassis is indirectly connected with axles by springs. It is done to prevent the
vehicle body from road shocks due to bounce, pitch, roll or sway. These road shocks provide an
uncomfortable ride and also additional stress to the automobile frame and body
Suspension system has a spring and damper. The energy of road shock produced by the spring
oscillates. These oscillations are arrested by the damper known as shock absorber.
Components of Suspension System
1. Springs are used to neutralize the shocks from the road surface.
2. Dampers, called shock absorbers, are used to improve a riding comfort by limiting the free
oscillation of springs.
3. Stabilizer, called sway bar or anti-roll bar, isto prevent lateral swinging of the car.
4. A linkage system holds above components to control the longitudinal and lateral movements
of wheels.
Functions or Objectives of Suspension System
1. To eliminate road shocks from transmission to vehicle components.
2. To obtain good road holding while driving, cornering and braking.
3. To keep the proper steering geometry.
4. To obtain a particular height to body structure.
5. To resist the torque and braking reactions.
8. To maintain the stability of the vehicle while traveling over rough round or when turning in
order to minimize the rolling, pitching or vertical movement tendency.
9. To safeguard the occupants against road shocks and provide a riding comfort.

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10. To minimize the effects of stresses due to road shocks on the mechanism of the motor vehicle
and provide a cushioning effect.
11. To keep the body perfectly in level while travelling over rough uneven ground. I.e. the up
and down movements of wheels should be relative to the body.
12. To prevent the structure of the vehicle from shock loading and vibration due to irregularities
of the road surface without impairing its stability.
13. To obtain the requisite height to body structure.
14. To support the body on the axles and keep the proper geometrical relationship between the
body and wheels.
Requirements of Suspension System
1. There should be minimum deflection.
2. It should be of minimum weight.
3. It should have low maintenance and low operating cost.
4. It should have minimum tyre wear.
5. It should be of low initial cost.

Principles of Suspension System

The principles of the suspension system are due to springing action of motor vehicles.
I. Supporting the weight of vehicle.
2. Absorbing satisfactorily larger and smaller road impacts with the help of a single springing
device.
3. The reduction of rolling or pitching of the body to a minimum design and attachment of
springs.
Sprung Weight and Unsprung Weight
The body of vehicle is supported by springs. The weight of the body is supported by springs
called sprung weight. Wheels, axles and other parts of the automobile which are not supported
by springs, called the unsprung weight. Unsprung weight is the weight of everything between
springs and road and a portion of weight of springs itself.
If greater is the sprung weight of an automobile, the better will be the riding comfort. This
tendency of the body reduces the jolt. Sprung weight is the weight of vehicle minus unsprung
weight
:. Sprung weight = Total weight of vehicle - unsprung weight.

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Greater is the unsprung weight on a wheel, the greater will be the energy stored by the unsprung
weight due to road bump and greater will be the disturbances. This greater unsprung weight
increases tyre deflections but it reduces the vertical velocity on road bump. Lesser unsprung
weight causes higher natural frequencies of the unsprung.
A lighter wheel moves on road irregularities without producing much reaction to the chassis
frame, body and occupants. If the weight of wheel increases, its movement is highly noticeable
to vehicle occupants. When the unsprung weight on the wheel becomes equal to thesprung
weight above the wheel, the sprung weight will move as much as unsprung weight. So, the
unsprung weight moves up and down over road irregularities. Therefore, the unsprungweight is
kept as low as possible due to the reduced unsprung weight thereby resulting a better ride.

Figure.4.1. Sprung and Unsprung Mass

Effects of unsprung weight:
The unsprung weight of a wheel controls a trade-off between a wheel's bump and its vibration
isolation. Bumps and surface imperfections in the road cause tyre compression which induces the
force on the unsprung weight. Then, the unsprung weight responds to this force with movement
of its own. The amount of movement for short bumps is inversely proportional to the weight. A
lighter wheel which readily moves in response to road bumps will have more constant grip when
tracking over an imperfect road. Therefore, lighter wheels are especially sought for high-
performance applications. In contrast, a heavier wheel which moves less will not absorb as much
vibration.
The irregularities of the road surface will transfer to the cabin through the geometry of the
suspension and hence, ride quality and road noise are deteriorated. For longer bumps, the greater
unsprung mass causes more energy to be absorbed by wheels and it makes the ride worse.
Pneumatic or elastic tyres help by providing some springing action for most of the unsprung
mass but the damping which can be included in tyres is limited due to fuel economy and
overheating. The shock absorbers damp the wheel bounce if any spring motion must be less stiff
than the optimum value. So, the wheels produce some vibrations after each bump before
comingto rest.
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High unsprung weight also exacerbates the wheel control issues under hard acceleration or
braking. If the vehicle does not have adequate wheel location in the vertical plane, the vertical
forces exerted by acceleration or hard braking combined with high unsprung mass can lead to
severe the wheel hop, compromising traction and steering control. Similar to above case, there is
a positive effect of unsprung mass. High frequency road irregularities such as gravels in an
asphalt or concrete road surface are isolated from the body more completely because the tyres
and springs act as separate filter stages with the unsprung weight tending to uncouple them.
Similarly, sound and vibration isolation are improved in production automobiles by the use of
rubber bushings between frame and suspension in theform of flexibility in the frame or body
work and flexibility in seats.

Types of Suspension Springs

Springs are main important parts of any suspension system which are classified as follows.
1. Steel springs
a) Leaf springs
b) Tapered leaf springs
c) Coil springs
d) Torsion bar
2. Rubber springs
a) Compression springs
b) Compression-shear springs
c) Steel reinforced springs
d) Progressive spring
e) Face shear spring
3. Air springs
a) Bellow type springs
b) Piston type springs
4. Plastic springs.

Leaf Spring Suspension

Figure 2. Shows the construction of the laminated leaf spring suspension. It has a number of
leaves of increasing lengths made of steel plates. The spring eye is mounted to the frame by a pin
called shackle pin. The centre portion of the spring is attached to the front axle by a V-bolt. One

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end of the spring is mounted on the frame with a simple pin. The other end is mounted by a
shackle with the frame.
The stiffness or spring rate of the coil spring decides the capacity of the spring which is defined
as the force required for unit deflection. It is governed by the following factors.
The length of the spring: Shorter spring will have higher stiffness and vice versa.
The width of the leaf: Wider spring will have higher stiffness and vice versa.
The thickness of the leaf: Thicker leaf will have higher stiffness and vice versa.
The number of leaves: Greater the number of leaves higher the stiffness is.
To obtain a smooth ride, a low-rate stiffness spring is required. The low rate spring will deflect a
larger amount under a given load. Normal springs have a constant rate, and give a deflection
which is proportional to the load applied.

Figure 4.2. Leaf Spring

When a laminated leaf spring deflects, the leaves slide over each other and cause inter-plate
friction. Although this has a beneficial damping effect, the hard ride, noise and wear occurs.
Hence, it is necessary to reduce this friction as much as possible.
Older designs of spring had to be sprayed with penetrating oil, but the new designs have the
following features to eliminate the need of periodic attention. Synthetic rubber buttons are
provided at the ends of the leaves Inter-leaf plates of low friction materials are incorporated.
Types of leaf springs:
Differenttypes of leafspringsbased on its designare as follows.
1. Semi elliptical spring
2. Quarter elliptical spring
3. Three quarter elliptical spring

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4. Full elliptical spring
5. Transverse spring
6. Platform type spring.

Figure 4.3. Semi Elliptical Spring

Figure 4.4. Quarter Elliptical Spring

Figure 4.5. Full Elliptical Spring

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 Figure.4.6. Transvers Spring

Helper Springs
Where there are fluctuations in the loads, helper springs are used in trucks and many other
vehicles. It is mounted above the mainspring as shown in Figure.7. It is arranged in such a way
that if the load is less, the main spring is operated. Both the main and helpersprings are operated
if the load exceeds a certain value.

Figure 4.7. Helpers Spring

Helper springs are used along with the main leaf springs on many commercial vehicles. It is
more suitable for a wide range of loading. Helper springs are mainly provided on rear
suspension. When the load on the road wheel increases, ends of the helper spring is just made to
touch the special brackets fitted to the side member thereby operating the helper spring.
Characteristics of helper springs:
1. Due to springs having enough rigidity to hold the axis in the proper position, they are required.
2. controlling of own oscillation through inter-leaf friction is performed.
3. These springs have durability in heavy-duty applications.

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4. Due to inter-leaf friction, it is difficult to absorb minute vibrations from the road surface. So,
leaf springs are more suitable for large commercial vehicles which can carry heavy loads.

Coil Spring
A coil spring is a steel wire. The required length is coiled throughout. The coil springs are used
in both rear and front independent suspensions. The energy stored per unit volume is
approximately twice in the coil spring when compared to leaf spring. The coil spring carries both
shear and bending stresses but both torque reaction and side thrust cannot be carried out. So,
some special arrangements are made to position the axles relative to the frame. Both driving
reaction and braking torque reaction are also considered in arranging the coil spring. Ahelper
spring is additionally used, as shown in Figure 8, to give progressive stiffness against the
increasing load.

Figure 4.8. Coil Spring

Coil springs are again classified into two types.
l. Tension, and
2. Compression springs
Characteristics of coil spring:
1. The energy absorption rate per unit of weight is greater when compared to leaf springs.
2. Soft springs can be coiled.
3. Due to no inter-leaf friction with leaf springs, no control of oscillation is necessary by the
spring itself but shock absorbers are needed.

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4. Due to no resistance to lateral forces, linkage mechanisms to support the axle such as
suspension arm, lateral control rod, etc. are required.

Torsion Bar
A torsion bar is a steel bar operated by both twisting and shear stress. Two long steel bars form
springs. Torsion bar can be used with independent suspensions. It is a simple bar in which one
end is fitted to the frame whereas the other end is fitted to the end of a wheel arm. The structure
with a bearing supports the projection of the second end of the bar. The other end of the wheel
arm is attached with the spindle of the wheel using kingpin.
When the wheel strikes a bump, it will start to vibrate up and down thereby producing a torque
on the torsion bar called spring. Torsion bar spring is lighter in weight when compared to leaf
springs. It also occupies less space. Torsion tubes replace torsion bars inmany cases. The main
disadvantage of the torsion bar spring is that it does not carry thebraking or driving torque.
Therefore. Additional linkages are needed. Due to the absence of friction force, the damping is
required to absorb road shocks. The simple torsion bar is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 4.9. Torsion Bar

Advantages of torsion springs:
1. This spring needs less space.
2. It is lighter than leaf spring system.
3. This system provides very neat and compact design.
4. In some cases, torsion tubes are used instead of torsion bars.
Disadvantage of torsion springs:
It does not take the driving or braking torque. Therefore, inconvenient additional link
mechanisms are provided for this purpose.
Rubber Springs

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As rubber can store more energy per unit mass than any other type of spring material,
considerable weight can be saved with rubber suspension. Rubber springs, if works on
compression or shear, can be used as the main suspension spring, otherwise can be fitted along
with metal springs to improve the suspension characteristics. Large rubber 'bump' stops used in
many suspension layouts stiffens the suspension spring against maximum deflection:
Rubber springs absorb oscillations by the internal friction generation if they are stretched by an
external force. The advantages of rubber springs are as follows.
I. Springs can be made into any desired shape.
2. Springs do not require to be lubricated.
The spring is installed between the frame and the top link of the suspension system.
When the spring is connected to a point near the link pivot, deflection of the spring reduces toa
minimum, without affecting the total wheel movement. This arrangement of spring provides a
rising-rate characteristic, which is 'soft' for small wheel movements but becomes harder as the
spring deflects.
The energy released from the rubber spring after deflection is considerably less than that
imparted to it. This internal loss of energy is called hysteresis, which is an advantage, because
lower-duty dampers may be used. Some rubber suspension systems have a tendency to 'settle
down' or 'creep' during the initial stages of service, therefore allowance for this must be provided.
Air Suspension System
Air springs are used in air suspension systems. The installation and configuration of air
suspension systems varies for different makes and models but the underlying principle remains
the same. The metal spring (coil or leaf) is removed, and an air bag, also referred to as an air
spring, is inserted or fabricated to fit in the place of the factory spring. When air pressure is
supplied to the air bag, the suspension can be adjusted either up or down (lifted or lowered).
Air spring is nothing but a flexible bellows, usually made from textile-reinforced rubber,
containing compressed air which is used to carry load on vehicles. The air pressure inflates
thebellows, and raises the chassis from the axle. Air springs have elasticity or "springiness" when
it is compressed. It is used on many heavy-duty trucks, trailers and buses on the road today.
Characteristics of air springs:
1. They are soft if the vehicle is not loaded but the stiffness increases when the load is increased
by increasing the air pressure inside the chamber. So, it gives the optimum riding comfort when
the vehicle is lightly loaded and fully loaded conditions.
2. The height of the vehicle is kept constant by varying the air pressure whenever the load
variation occurs.
3. Air springs increase vehicle stability by absorbing road shock.

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4. Air spring systems are designed to maximize safe load carrying capacity, stability and overall
ride quality.
Three basic types of air springs are available as follows.
The double-convoluted,
The tapered-sleeve, and
The rolling-sleeve.
The double-convoluted design looks like a small tyres kept one over the other. These type of air
springs generally has more load capacity, a shorter stroke, and a more progressive spring rate
which is best suited for use on most front suspensions where the spring sits considerably inboard
of the suspension's load point. This has the effect of multiplying loadcapacity requirements while
dividing travel requirements.
Types of air suspension:
The following are different types of air suspension systems based on the design of air springs
used.
a) Bellow type air suspension
b) Piston type air suspension
c) Elongated bellows air suspension.
(i) Bellow type air suspension (spring):
This type of spring consists of rubber bellows. The bellows are made into circular sections
having two convolutions for proper functioning as shown in Figure 10. So, a bellow type air
suspension replaces the coil spring.

Figure 4.10. Bellow Type Air Spring

(ii) Piston type air suspension (Spring):

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This spring has a metal air container in the form of an inverted drum. The drum is connected to
the frame. A sliding piston is connected to the lower wishbone. A flexible diaphragm provides a
seal. The diaphragm is tightly connected at its outer circumference to the lip of the drum and at
the centre to the piston as shown in Figure 11.

Figure 4.11. Piston Type Air Spring

Shock Absorber
Shock absorbers will not efficiently absorb road shocks if the suspension springs are highly rigid.
They will be continuously vibrated for a longer time if springs are sufficiently flexible. To
overcome this difficulty, a system having compromise between flexibility and stiffness should be
used.
Shock absorbers are used as a part of the suspension system. They provide more resistance to the
motion of the spring and road wheel in order to damp out vibrations.
Purpose of shock absorber:
(i) To control the vibrations on springs.
(ii) To provide comfortable ride.
(iii) To act flexible and to be rigid enough.
(iv) To resist the unnecessary motion of the spring.
Types of shock absorbers:
I. Mechanical shock absorber (friction type)
2. Hydraulic shock absorber.
Again the hydraulic shock absorbers are further divided into various types.
1. Van type
2. Piston type
a. Single acting

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b. Double acting
3. Telescopic type
(i) Telescopic Shock Absorber:
Construction:
The upper eye of the telescopic shock absorber is attached to the axle and the lower eye is
attached to the chassis frame as shown in Figure 12. A two way valve V1 is connected to a rod.
Another one two-way valve V2 is connected to the lower end of the cylinder. The fluid occupies
in the space between above and below the valve V1 and also the annular space between cylinder
and tube. A gland is provided on the head. Fluid scrapped out by the rod is brought down into the
annular space through the inclined passage.
Working:
When the vehicle comes across a bump, the lower eye will move up. So, the fluid follows from
lower side of the valve VI to the upper side. Due to less volume of the space above valve VI than
the volume of the rod, the pressure is exerted on valve V2 Thus, the damping force is produced
by this pressure of the fluid. The fluid will flow from the upper side of the valve VI to lower side
when the lower eye moves down and from lower side of the valve V2 to its upper side.
When a car absorbs shocks from the road surface, the suspension springs will compress and
expand because the spring has the characteristic of continuing to oscillate for a long time of
oscillation to stop. So, a riding comfort will be poor even the damp oscillation is supplied.
Shock absorbers provide better road-holding characteristics and improved steering stability to
tyres. The stronger is the damping force, the more will be the oscillations of the body. But, the
shock from the damping effect becomes greater than the strength of the stronger damping force.
The damping force varies with the speed of the piston.

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 Figure 4.12. Telescopic Shock Absorber
Types of Suspension System
Generally, the following two basic types of suspension system are given below.
(i) Front end suspension
(a) Independent front suspension
(b) Rigid axle front suspension
(ii) Rear end suspension
(a) Longitudinal leaf spring rear suspension
(b) Transverse leaf spring rear suspension
(c) Coil spring rear end suspension.
Independent Front Suspension
The independent front suspension was developed in the 1930's to improve vehicle ride control
and riding comfort. In this type of suspension, each front wheel is mounted on its own axle and
independently supported by a coil or torsion bar or leaf spring. This allows the wheels to respond
individually to road conditions. Now-a-days, all vehicles use this suspension system. Coil
springs are commonly used in this suspension system. This suspension system completely
prevents the wheel wobble. A greater wheel movement is utilized without affecting the steering

16
system. The steering conditions and qualities are improved by a wider spacing of the front
springs.
Types of independent front suspensions:
1. Longitudinal suspension
2. Transverse suspension
3. Sliding suspension
4. Mac Pherson Strut and link type suspension
5. Parallelogram type suspension or Wishbone type
6. Trailing link type suspension
7. Vertical guide suspension.
1. Longitudinal independent front suspension:
Helical spring is connected between two wishbones (arms in U shape) with the support of frame
member as shown in Figure. 13. The arms are in the shape of U. The upper wishbone is hinged at
the inner end on a hydraulic damper. The outer end is hinged at stub axle carrier.

Figure 4.13. Longitudinal Independent Front Suspension System

2. Transverse independent front suspension:
In this type, two trailing arms are connected one above the other transversely at the front portion
of the vehicle. The stub axle assembly is connected with ends of arms. Radius rods are of 45° to
the centre line of the vehicle used to support it. Figure 14. Illustrates transverse independent front
suspension system arrangement.

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 Figure 4.14. Transverse independent front suspension
3. Sliding type independent front suspension:
The stub axle moves up and down and it rotates in frame members. There is no change in track,
wheel attitude and wheel base throughout the rise and fall of the wheel. The line diagram of the
sliding type independent front suspension is shown in Figure 15.

Figure 4.15. Sliding Suspension

4. Mac Pherson strut and link type independent front suspension:
It is used in an integral body construction due to wider spaced loading points. Instead of the
normal top link, a flexible mounting and a telescopic damper are used. Both rolling action and
shocks absorption are readily obtained as shown in Figure 16.

Figure 4.16. Mac Pherson strut and link type independent front suspension
5. Parallelogram independent front suspension or wishbone type:

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The stub axle carrier connects an upper and lower link. The lower link is larger than the upper
but it may not be parallel. It keeps the same the track width when the wheels rise andfall
produced by the wheel scrubbing sideways. The various schematic arrangements ofparallelogram
independent front suspension using coil, torsion and leaf springs are shown in Figure 17.

Figure 4.17. Parallelogram Independent Front Suspension

The use of coil springs in the front axle suspension of cars is universal. It consists of upper and
lower wishbone arms pivoted to the frame member. The spring is placed between lower
wishbone and underside of the cross-member. The vehicle weight is transmitted from body and
cross-member to the coil spring through which it goes to the lower wishbone.
The wishbone arms are similar to a chicken wishbone or letter V in shape as shown in Figure .18.
Due to V-shape, the wishbone not only positions wheels and it transmits the vehicle load to the
springs but also they resist acceleration, braking and cornering (side) forces.

Figure 4.18. Wishbone Suspension

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7. Vertical guide suspension:
In this type, the kingpin is directly connected to the cross member of the frame. It moves up and
down thereby compressing and expanding the coil springs as shown in Figure 19.

Figure 4.19. Vertical Guide Suspension

8. Swinging half axle suspension:
In this type of suspension system, wheels are mounted rigidly on half axles which are pivoted at
their ends to the chassis member at the middle of the car as shown in Figure 20. The main
disadvantage of this system is lip and down movements of the wheel causing the camber angle to
vary.

Figure 4.20. Swinging Arm Suspension System

Rigid Axle Front Suspension
Rigid axle front suspension is also called as dependent front suspension. This type of suspension
uses a solid axle. This type of suspension has been universally used before drawing the
independent front wheel suspension. This design consists of one steel or aluminium beam
extending the width of the vehicle. This beam is held in place by leaf springs. This design also
uses kingpins and bushings to attach the wheels outboard of the axle. Because of its load

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carrying ability, the solid axle is only used on heavy trucks, and off-road vehicles. It is not
suitable for use on modern passenger cars for three important reasons.
Transfer of Road Shock: There is transfer of road shock from one wheel to the other due to the
way the wheels are connected to the axle. This causes a rough ride and could result in loss of
traction.
Unsprung Weight. “Because the solid axle has a lot of unsprung weight, it needs more spring and
shock control to keep the tyres in contact with the road.
Wheel Alignment: The solid axle design makes no provisions for alignment. Figure 21.
illustrates a typical rigid axle front wheel suspension. It has either two longitudinal leaf springs
or a transverse spring along with shock absorbers.

In this type of suspension, the front wheel hub rotates on anti-friction bearings and steering
spindles already connected with steering knuckles. The steering spindle and steering knuckle
assemblies are pinned at axle ends to permit the wheels turning. This pin is called kingpin or
steering knuckle pin.

Figure 4.21. Rigid Axial Front Wheel Suspension System

Independent Rear Suspension
Any suspension that can be used on the front end of the ‘car can be used on the rear end. The
versions of the independent' front systems described in the previous section can be found on the
rear axles. But, in the rear end of the car, the steering Linkage is absent. Therefore, rear
independent suspensions can be simplified versions of front ones, although the basic principles
remain the same.
As explained in the independent front axle suspension, here also the wheels are mounted in
separate axles and sprung independently. Figure 22. Illustrates a method of rear wheel

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independent suspension. Universal couplings are used to keep the wheels vertical. Sliding
coupling is necessary to keep the wheel track constant to avoid scrubbings of tyres.
Types of independent rear suspension:
1. Longitudinal leaf spring rear end suspension
2. Transverse leaf spring rear end suspension
3. Coil spring rear end suspension,
Both longitudinal leaf spring and coil spring suspensions are mainly used in vehicles but
transverse leaf spring suspensions are rarely used. In addition to above types, there are some
more types of such as
1. Parallel link system
2. Swinging arm type
3: Swinging half axles.
In parallel link system. Wheels are attached with a backbone-type frame using two wishbone
shaped. Links.
In swinging arm type, a spring or a torsion bar is used at the pivot. These axles are usedin most
of vehicles. It has two axle tubes joined to the final drive housing which allows the wheel to rise
or fall. A universal joint is fixed to allow the change in drive axle at the centre of each axle joint.
1. Longitudinal leaf spring rear end suspensions:
Laminated leaf spring, as shown in Figure 23, is used as a suspension member in this type of
system. The front end of the longest leaf is bending into a circle to form the spring eye. The
spring eye is attached to the spring hanger by a bolt. The spring hanger is fixed to the vehicle

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 frame rubber bushings inserted in the spring hanger support the bolt as shown in Figure.

Figure 4.23. Longitudinal Leaf Spring Suspension

Transverse leaf spring rear end suspension:
This system is quite simple in which a single transverse spring is used. Such springs are mounted
in inverted positions parallel and above the rear axle. Each end is shackled to the rear axle as
shown in Figure.
The transverse rear springs are always used in combination with torque tube drive. Therefore,
they do not carry the driving thrust and torque. Figure 24. Shows the another arrangement of this
type of spring in which each rear wheel is independently suspended by one end of the transverse
spring while the tubular cross member is attached to the high centre portion.

23
 Figure 4.24. Transverse Leaf Spring
Coil spring rear end suspensions:
The coil springs, as shown in Figure 25, are seated in the pan shaped brackets attached to the rear
axle and they are compressed against similar spring seats incorporated into the frame (or) body.
There are two control arms (or) links attached between rear axle housing and car frame. They
permit upward (or) downward movement of the axle housing regarding the car frame.
This type of suspension is always used along with a torque tube drive. Therefore, the coil springs
are not subjected to driving thrust. The excessive roll of side way while rounding a curve is
prevented by a shock absorber mounted in rubber bushings. Energy stored in given weight of
spring coil and torsion bar springs are superior to leaf springs.

Figure 4.25. Coil Spring Rear End Suspension

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BRAKING SYSTEM
The mechanism which is used to slow and stop the vehicle is known as braking system. It is an
important component of a vehicle. In other words. The total system starting from brake pedal or
lever to the brake shoe is known as braking system.
Principle of braking system:
In this system, the kinetic energy is converted into heat energy due to friction between two
mating surfaces of brake lining and brake drum. Then the heat is dissipated into the atmosphere.
Need for brakes:
1. To stop or slow down the vehicle at the will of an operator.
2. To control the vehicle descending a hill.
3. To keep the vehicle in a desired position even at rest.
4. To park the vehicle and hold it in stationary position without the presence of driver.
Requirements of Braking System
1. It should have good anti-fade characteristics.
2. It should be consistent with safety.
3. It should not be skidding while applying brake.
4. It should have a better cooling system.
5. It should be strong enough to stop the vehicle within the minimum distance.

Types of Brakes
The automobile brakes are classified on the basis of following.
1. According to the applications:
i) Service or running or foot brake
(ii) Parking or emergency or hand brake.
2. According to the number of wheels:
(i) Two wheel brakes
(ii) Four wheel brakes.
3, According to the brake gear:
(i) Mechanical brake
(a) Hand brake

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(b) Foot brake.
(ii) Power brake:
(a) With booster
(b) Without booster.
4. According to construction:
(i) Drum brake
(ii) Disc brake.
5. According to location
(i) Transmission brakes
(ii) Wheel brakes.
6. According to method of braking contact:
(i) Internal expanding brakes
(ii) External expanding brakes.
7. According to thepower unit:
(i) Cylinder brake
(ii) Diaphragm brake.
8. According to power transmission:
(i) Direct acting brake
(ii) Geared brake,
9. According to method of applying brake force:
(i) Single acting brake
(ii) Double acting brake.
10. According topower employed:
(i) Vacuum brakes
a, Atmospheric suspended
h. Vacuum suspended
(ii) Air or pneumatic brakes
(iii) Hydraulic brakes

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(iv) Hydrostatic brakes
(v) Electric brakes.

Types of Drum Brakes

There are two types of drum brakes as follows.
(i) External contacting brakes
(ii) Internal expanding brakes
1. External contracting brake:
The main components of external contracting brakes are brake drum, bandwidth lining, operating
lever, push ‘rod, return spring and adjusting lever.

Figure 4.26. Drum Brake

Working:
When the push rod is started to function by the hand through operating, then the lined brake band
fixed around the drum will be tightened in order to lock or slow down the rotating drum as
shown in Figure 26. The return spring brings the band back to the off position when the brake is
released. This system is pneumatically operated. The main disadvantages are greater wear and
tear. To park the vehicle in position, this type of brake is mainly used.

27
Internal expanding brake:
These internal expanding brakes have the following parts such as brake drum, stationary plate,
two brake shoes, anchor pins and retracting spring.
Working:
When the cam is turned, the shoes with brake linings will be moved beside the drum as shown in
Figure 26. The brake linings create friction between rotating drum and expanding shoes. The
force of the friction isjust opposite to the direction of drum rotation. Therefore, the vehicle is
stopped or slowed down. When the brake releases, the retracting spring is brought shoes back to
the off position. It is mainly used in modern vehicles. It is tightly connected to the steering
knuckle in a front wheel brake.
Disc Brakes
A disc brake is a type of brake that uses calliper’s to squeeze pairs of pads against a disc in order
to create friction that retards the rotation of a shaft, such as a vehicle axle, either to reduce its
rotational speed or to hold it stationary. The friction elements are shaped like pads and are
squeezed inwards to clamp a rotating disc or wheel.

Figure 4.27. Components of Drum Brake

Components of Disc Brake
i) Brake Calliper
A disc brake assembly consists of a calliper, brake pads, and rotor as shown in Figure 27.
The calliper is the nonrotating unit in the system and it may be mounted to the spindle or splash
shield to provide support. The brake calliper assembly includes the calliper housing, the
piston(s), the dust boot(s), the brake pads or shoes, and the bleeder screw. The calliper is fitted

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with one or more pistons that are hydraulically actuated by the fluid pressure developed in the
system. When the brake pedal is applied, brake fluid flows into the calliper cylinder.
The piston is then forced outward by fluid pressure to apply the brake pads to the rotor. The
piston boot keeps road dirt and water off the calliper piston and wall of the cylinder. The boot
and seal fit into grooves cut in the calliper cylinder and piston. A bleeder screw allows air to be
removed from the hydraulic system.
(ii)Disc brake pads:
Disc brake pads consist of steel shoes to which the lining is riveted or bonded. Brake pad linings
are made of either asbestos (asbestos fiber filled) or semi-metallic (metal particle filled) friction
material. Many new vehicles, especially those with front-wheel drive, use semi metallic linings.
Semi-metallic linings withstand higher operating temperatures without losing their frictional
properties. Anti-rattle clips are frequently used to keep the brake pads from vibrating and
rattling.
(iii) Brake disc:
It is also called brake rotor. The brake disc uses friction from the brake pads to slow or stop the
vehicle. Made of cast iron, the rotor may be an integral part of the wheel hub. However, on many
front-wheel drive vehicles, the disc and hub are separate units. The brake disc may be a
ventilated rib or solid type. The ventilated rib disc is hollow that allows cooling air to circulate
inside the disc.
Types of Disc Brake
Disc brakes can be classified as follows.
1. Fixed calliper (or) swinging calliper type
2. Floating calliper type, and
3. Sliding calliper type.
Floating and sliding are the most common types. The fixed calliper may be found on older
vehicles.

Fixed caliper disc brake:

The caliper is pivoted about a fulcrum pin but one of the friction pads is connected to the. caliper
shown in Figure 28. The other pad is pressed by the fluid pressure against the disc to apply the
brake. So, the caliper automatically makes to adjust its position by swinging about the pin.
In this design, the caliper usually is made in two pieces and has two or more pistons in use. The
pistons accomplish the centering action of the fixed caliper, as they move in their bores. If the
lining should wear unevenly on one side of the caliper. The piston would take up the excess
clearance simply by moving further out of the bore. As the brakes are applied, fluid pressure
enters the caliper on one side and isrouted to the other through an internal passage or by an
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external tube connected to the opposite half of the caliper. As pressure is increased, the pistons
force the brake pads against the rotor evenly, therefore maintaining an equal amount of pressure
on both sides of the rotor.

Figure 4.28. Fixed Caliper disc brake

Floating caliper disc brake:
The floating caliper type disc brake is designed to move laterally on its mount. This movement
allows the caliper to maintain a centered position with respect to the rotor as shown in Figure 28.
This design also permits the braking force to be applied equally to both sides of the rotor. The
floating caliper usually is a one-piece solid construction and uses a single piston to develop the
braking force.

Figure 4.29. Floating Caliper Disc Brake

Sliding caliper disc brake:

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The sliding caliper type disc brake, as shown in Figure 30, is mounted in a slot in the caliper
adapter. It is a variation of the floating caliper, using a single piston and operating on the same
principle, whereby the piston applies pressure to one brake pad and the movable caliper applies
pressure to the other. This design has two major sections such as the sliding caliper and the
caliper adapter (anchor plate). Each has two angular machined surfaces. Thisis where the sliding
contacts

Figure 4.30. Sliding Caliper Disc Brake

come into play. The machined surfaces of the calliper housingslide on the mated surfaces of the
caliper adapter when the brakes are applied.
Hydraulic Brakes
Today, most of the cars use hydraulic brake system on all wheels with additional hand brake to
stop the rear wheel movement. The liquid pressure supplies hydraulic brakes. The pedal force is
transmitted to the brake shoe by definite quantity of liquid passing through a force transmission
system. Then the force applied to the pedal is multiplied and transmitted to brake shoes by a
suitable transmission system based upon Pascal's principle. It states that the total pressure acting
on the transmission system is equal to the sum of pressures acting in all directions without any
losses.
Hydraulic braking system consists of two main components which are master cylinder and wheel
cylinder. The master cylinder is attached to the wheel cylinder by tubes on each of four wheels.
The system has light liquid pressure which acts as a brake fluid. This brake fluid is a mixture of
glycerin and alcohol or castor oil, denatured alcohol and some additives.
Construction:
A wheel brake has a cylinder brake drum connected on the inner side of the wheel as shown in
Figure 31. Two brake shoes are connected inside the brake drums. The shoes are fixed with heat
and wear resisting brake lining on their surface. The brake pedal is fitted to the master cylinder
piston by a piston rod.
Working:
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When the brake is applied, the driver depresses the pedal to force the piston into the master
cylinder. It will increase the pressure of the fluid in the master cylinder. So, the entry hydraulic
system pressure is increased. This pressure is transmitted equally to the wheel cylinder on each
of four brakes. Then, it forces the wheel cylinder piston outwards. Due to this, the brake shoes
are forced out against the brake drums. Hence, the brake is applied.

Figure 4.31. Hydraulic Brake System

When the driver releases the brake pedal, the master cylinder piston is returned to its original
position by return spring. Thus, the fluid pressure in the entry system decreases to original value.
It allows retracting springs on wheel brakes to pull the brake shoes out of contact along with
brake drums. Therefore, the wheel cylinder pistons also come back to their original inward
position. Thus, the brake is released.

Master Cylinder
The central unit in the hydraulic braking system is master cylinder. It produces the required
hydraulic pressure to operate the system. The pressure of the driver's foot on brakes pedal is
transmitted to the master cylinder piston through different linkage arrangements. So, the master
cylinder is considered as the heart of the hydraulic braking system.
Purposes of a master cylinder:
1. The required hydraulic pressure is built up to operate the system.
2. It maintains a constant volume of fluid in the system.
3. To bleed or force air out of the brake line and wheel cylinder, a pump is used.
Construction of master cylinder:

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Master cylinder is made of cast iron. It has brackets and holes for mounting. The two main types
of chambers are as follows.
(i) Fluid reservoir
(ii) Compression chamber

Figure 4.32. Construction of Master Cylinder

Working of master cylinder:
When the brake pedal is released, the master cylinder piston will be moved forward to force the
liquid under pressure into the system. The relief port is arrested by sealing the system. The liquid
pressure is transmitted by moving the wheel to wheel cylinders. The brake shoes are forced out
by these pistons against brake drums.
When the brake pedal is depressed, the return spring quickly forces the master cylinder piston
back against the piston stop. A vacuum is produced in the cylinder in front of the piston. So, the
primary cup is collapsed to allow the liquid to flow from the reservoir through the filler port past
the piston. When the pedal is in OFF condition, the liquid will flow from the reservoir to the
relief port through the master cylinder, supply lines and wheel cylinder. A complete column of
liquid is always same between master cylinder piston and wheel cylinder pistons.

Wheel Cylinder
The following are the functions of wheel cylinder.
1. It actuates the shoes outward to contact the brake drum.
2. It converts the hydraulic pressure of very low value into a significant value of mechanical
force of higher value.

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Construction of wheel cylinder:
The wheel cylinder, as shown in Figure 32, which is connected with the cast iron housing are
fitted into the individual wheels. An expander unit activates the brake shoes, two pistons are
connected with brake shoes through piston rods. Two-cup washers are connected at the inner
side of the piston with a spring connected between them. Rubber boots and dust covers are used
to keep the cylinder free from dust.

A bleeder valve is used for pumping out air and liquid during bleeding. The mechanism is sealed
by the rubber cup to arrest any leakage of the brake fluid.
Working:
The brake fluid goes into the master cylinder when the brake effort is applied. The built-up
pressure is sent to the space between two pistons in opposite direction to each other. Then, this
outward movement is transmitted through links and piston rods by operating brake shoes.

Figure 4.33. Wheel cylinder

Pneumatic Braking - System
The air is sucked by the compressor from atmosphere through the filter and it is compressed air
as shown in Figure 33. During compression, both pressure and temperature increase. Then, the
compressed air is passed to the reservoir through an unloaded valve by lifting at a pre-
determined reservoir pressure. Due to this, the compressor load is released. Theair is allowed to
flow to various accessories and diaphragm units at each wheel. It flows through the brake valve
from the reservoir. The control of brake valve is effected the intensity of braking according to
requirements

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 Figure 4.34. Layout of Pneumatic Braking System
Heavy vehicles of buses and trucks need a heavy effort at brakes thereby producing compressed.
The main parts are air filter, unloaded valve, air tank, brake valve and brake chamber. The line
pressure is regulated by the unloaded valve. This unloaded valve is connected to one side of the
air tank.
When the line pressure attains the upper limit, this valve gets opened to allow air to the
atmosphere. Brake valve is connected to the driver's pedal which controls the air pressure acting
on four brake chambers. When the driver releases the brake pedal, force is exerted on the
graduated spring and piston. The exhaust valve seat will also move downward when the piston
moves downwards to contact the exhaust valve and seals the exhaust opening in the piston stem.
By continuous downward movement of piston, the inlet valve is forced. At that time, air pressure
from the air tank forces through the inlet valve and to brake chambers for applying the brake
through delivery ports.
When the driver releases the pedal fully, the graduated spring is compressed and strike by the
piston shoulder in the body. So, the inlet valve is fully opened and full air tank pressure is
admitted to pass through brake valve into the brake chamber.
When the driver releases the pedal, the exhaust valve gets opened to allow full air pressure in
brake chambers. So, the brake on the vehicle is fully released.
Advantages of pneumatic brakes:
1. It is more effective when compared to other brakes.
2. The air brake parts are easily located where the chassis design making is simple.
3. The compressed air can be used for tyre inflation wipers, horn and other accessories.
4. It employs only air as the working medium which is easily available.
5. It is easy to store air at high pressure.
6. It provides heavy braking effect used in heavy vehicles and trucks.
7. It provides better control.
8. It reduces the stopping distance.

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9. It mainly allows less wear and tear of parts.
10. It has flexible hose connection.
Servo Brake Systems
The additional mechanism which is connected to reduce the driver's effort during applying
brakes is known as servomechanism. When the weight of the vehicle increases, more braking
effort is required to stop the vehicle. After reaching the desired limit, it is difficult to apply the
effort required conveniently by an ordinary driver. This limit is almost three tones of the weight
of the vehicle. The use of the servo action or self-energization of brakes isperformed beyond this
limit.
Power-Assisted Braking System
Generally, a braking in automobiles magnifies a small force applied to the brake pedal into a
proportionately larger force applied to slow or stop the vehicle called power brake. Most all
modern vehicles use power assisted brakes. The power brake is a modern braking tool for cars to
make braking safer and easier.
Power brakes are of two types as follows.
(i) Vacuum assisted hydraulic brakes
(ii) Pneumatic brakes.
Antilock Braking Systems (ABS)
Stopping safely is one of the most important functions a motor vehicle. Failure of the brake
system will invariably lead to a property damage, personal injury or even death. Consequently, a
great deal of consideration has been given to improve the brake system in trucks and passenger
cars over last nine decades. One of the latest improvements is an antilock brake system which
prevents a vehicle's brakes from locking up and skidding during hard stops on wet or icy roads.

Figure 4.35. Components of ABS

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The problem of skidding reveals the overwhelming weakness of all motor vehicle braking
systems. They depend strongly on the coefficient of static friction between tyre and road. If the
tyre momentarily loses its adhesion to the road while brakes are applied, the friction of brakes
will be against drums or rotors which lock the wheel solidly and the tyre begins skidding across
the road. In this condition, the braking force of the wheel is depend on the sliding friction
between tyre and road which is much less than static friction. Under wet or icy conditions, the
sliding friction is reduced even further thereby resulting significantly the longer stopping
distance.
In addition, when the front wheels are in this condition, they cannot be used to steer the vehicle
irrespective of the angle of front wheels and, the vehicle continues to skid whatever be the
direction of its momentum until either the driver releases brakes or the vehicle collides with
solid. Antilock Braking Systems (ABS) is a form of electronic braking which helps a driver to
control the vehicle under heavy braking by preventing wheels from locking up.

Working Principle of ABS

Wheel speed sensors are placed on each wheel for controlling the speed. Each speed sensor has a
toothed wheel such as a gear which rotates at the same speed as the vehicle wheel or axle. It is a
permanent magnet wrapped with a coil of wire called pick-up coil. As each tooth rotates past the
permanent magnet, it will cause the magnetic field to concentrate and increase slightly. Then, it
induces a small pulse of current in the coil of wire.
The pulsed output from the wheel speed sensors goes to an ECU which monitors each wheel
speed relative to the speed of other wheels. As long as the brakes are not being applied and all
monitored wheels are rotating roughly at the same speed, the system takes no action.
However, the brakes are being applied and one or more of the monitored wheels suddenly begin
to reduce the speed at high rate than other controllers and then they activate the antilock system.
In an automobile, brakes are actuated by hydraulic pressure. In ASS, electrically operated
solenoid valves are used to hold, release and reapply the hydraulic pressure to brakes.
ASS controller operates solenoid valves built into high pressure side of the master brake
cylinder. These valves are normally open and do not interfere with braking. When the controller
senses a wheel locking up while braking, it .will first activate a solenoid to close a valve in the
affected wheel brake line to prevent the pressure from increasing further. If the locked wheel
continues to lose its speed, the controller activates a second solenoid which bleeds pressure off
the affected brake line for effective releasing of the brake irrespective of the driver effort. As
soon as the wheel regains traction and its speed increases, the solenoids are de-activated and
normal braking resumes.
If conditions are that the wheel starts to skid again, the brake wilt promptly begin to lock up and
ASS will take over. This cycle is repeated 12 to 15 times per second until either the road
condition changes or the driver releases brakes. The driver will be able to detect this rapid
cycling as a vibration felt through the brake pedal but it will not have to take any action.

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