### 1. Why is asymmetric cryptography bad for huge data? Specify the reason.

* *Reason:* Asymmetric cryptography algorithms, like RSA, involve complex mathematical operations
that are computationally expensive. For large datasets, these operations can become extremely time-
consuming, making encryption and decryption impractical.

### 2. What is a primitive root of a number?

* *Primitive root:* A primitive root of a prime number p is an integer g such that the powers of g
modulo p generate all the non-zero residues modulo p. In other words, for every non-zero residue a
modulo p, there exists an exponent k such that g^k ≡ a (mod p).

### 3. Perform encryption and decryption using RSA algorithm for the following: p=7, q=11; e=17; m=8.

* *Solution:*

* *Step 1: Calculate n and φ(n):* n = p*q = 7*11 = 77, φ(n) = (p-1)*(q-1) = 6*10 = 60

* *Step 2: Find d:* Since e*d ≡ 1 (mod φ(n)), we can find d using the extended Euclidean algorithm. We
get d = 7.

* *Step 3: Encryption:* c ≡ m^e (mod n) = 8^17 ≡ 56 (mod 77)

* *Step 4: Decryption:* m ≡ c^d (mod n) = 56^7 ≡ 8 (mod 77)

### 4. Using the properties of discrete logarithms, show how to solve the following congruence: x^2 ≡
36 (mod 77).

* *Solution:*

* Since 77 = 7*11, we can solve the congruence modulo 7 and modulo 11 separately using discrete
logarithms.

* For modulo 7: x^2 ≡ 36 ≡ 1 (mod 7) => x ≡ ±1 (mod 7)

* For modulo 11: x^2 ≡ 36 ≡ 4 (mod 11) => x ≡ ±2 (mod 11)

* Using the Chinese Remainder Theorem, we can combine these solutions to get x ≡ ±1, ±29, ±37, ±45
(mod 77).

### 5. State Fermat’s little theorem.

* *Fermat's little theorem:* If p is a prime number and a is any integer not divisible by p, then a^(p-1) ≡
1 (mod p).

### 6. Define the term message digest.

* *Message digest:* A message digest is a fixed-size output produced by a cryptographic hash function
applied to a variable-length input. It is used to verify data integrity and authenticity.

### 7. How do you specify various types of authentication protocol?

* *Authentication protocols* can be specified based on factors like:

* *Number of parties involved:* Two-party or three-party

* *Type of authentication:* Password-based, token-based, biometric, etc.

* *Security level:* Symmetric or asymmetric cryptography

### 8. State any three requirements for authentication.

* *Three requirements for authentication:*

* *Correctness:* The system should correctly identify authorized users and reject unauthorized ones.

* *Security:* The authentication process should be resistant to attacks, such as password guessing or
impersonation.

* *Efficiency:* The authentication process should be fast and easy for users.

### 9. Assume a client C wants to communicate with a server S using Kerberos protocol. Explain How
can it be achieved?

* *Kerberos protocol:*

* *Step 1:* C sends a request to the Key Distribution Center (KDC) for a ticket to access S.

* *Step 2:* KDC generates a ticket for C and a session key, encrypts them with S's secret key, and sends
the encrypted message to C.

* *Step 3:* C decrypts the message using its shared secret with KDC and obtains the ticket and session
key.
 * *Step 4:* C sends the ticket to S.

* *Step 5:* S verifies the ticket and uses the session key to establish a secure communication channel
with C.

### 10. What is cyber security?

* *Cybersecurity* is the practice of protecting computer systems, networks, and data from
unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction.

### 11. What is the category of cybercrime?

* *Categories of cybercrime:*

* *Computer crimes:* Illegal activities that involve computers, such as hacking, malware, and fraud.

* *Internet crimes:* Crimes committed using the internet, such as online scams, identity theft, and
copyright infringement.

### 12. List the privacy facts of web security problem

* *Privacy facts of web security problems:*

* *Data collection:* Websites collect personal information without user consent.

* *Data sharing:* Collected data is shared with third parties without proper authorization.

* *Data breaches:* Sensitive data is exposed due to security vulnerabilities.

* *Tracking:* User behavior is tracked online without their knowledge.

### 13. List the need for information Security

* *Need for information security:*

* *Data confidentiality:* Protecting sensitive information from unauthorized access.

* *Data integrity:* Ensuring data is accurate and complete.

* *Data availability:* Ensuring data is accessible when needed.

### 14. Prepare any one technique attacking in RSA

* *RSA attack: Factorization attack*

* *Technique:* Attackers try to factor the modulus n into its prime factors p and q. If successful, they
can calculate the private key d and decrypt messages.

### 15. Summarize the Classes of message authentication function.

* *Classes of message authentication functions:*

* *Hash-based MACs:* Use a hash function and a secret key to generate a MAC.

* *Block cipher-based MACs:* Use a block cipher and a secret key to generate a MAC.

* *Message authentication codes (MACs):* Ensure data integrity and authenticity.

### 16. How digital signatures differ from authentication protocols?

* *Digital signatures:* Used to verify the authenticity and integrity of a message.

* *Authentication protocols:* Used to verify the identity of a user or device.

### 17. Define cybercrime

* *Cybercrime:* Illegal activities that involve computers, networks, and the internet.

### 18. Which are the elements of cyber crime?

* *Elements of cybercrime:*

* *Computer:* A device used to commit the crime.

* *Network:* A system of interconnected computers.

* *Internet:* A global network of computers.

* *Victim:* The person or organization harmed by the crime.

* *Perpetrator:* The person who commits the crime.

### 19. Why is asymmetric cryptography bad for huge data? Specify the reason.

* *Reason:* Asymmetric cryptography algorithms, like RSA, involve complex mathematical operations
that are computationally expensive. For large datasets, these operations can become extremely time-
consuming, making encryption and decryption impractical.

### 20. Design the role of Ticket Granting Server in inters realm operations of Kerberos.

* *Ticket Granting Server (TGS) role:*

* *Issues tickets:* Grants tickets to clients for accessing services in other realms.

* *Verifies credentials:* Validates client credentials and authenticates them to the TGS.

* *Provides cross-realm authentication:* Enables secure communication between clients and servers in
different realms.

### 21. Create a simple authentication dialogue used in Kerberos

* *Authentication dialogue:*

* *Client:* Sends a request to the KDC for a ticket to access a service.

* *KDC:* Issues a ticket to the client, encrypted with the service's secret key.

* *Client:* Sends the ticket to the service.

* *Service:* Verifies the ticket and uses the session key to establish a secure communication channel
with the client.

### 22. Define virus. Specify the types of viruses?

* *Virus:* A malicious software program that replicates itself and spreads to other computers.

* *Types of viruses:*

* *Boot sector virus:* Infects the master boot record of a disk.

* *File infector virus:* Attaches itself to executable files.

* *Macro virus:* Targets documents that use macros.

* *Resident virus:* Remains in memory after execution and infects files as they are accessed.
* *Polymorphic virus:* Changes its code to avoid detection.