8 Electric Vehicle Modelling 8.1 Introduction Wis al vehicles the prediction of performance and range is important. Computers allow usta do thi easonahly easily. Above al, computer-bted meters allow ue quickly to investigate aspects of the vehicle, such & motor power, baley type and sz, weigh and soon, and see how the changee might affect the performance ad ang. In this chapter ‘we wll show how the equations we fave developed i the preceding capers can be how this em Be done without wing any special knowledge of programming tehnigues, 25 sundad mathematical and speadshet programs suchas MATLAB® and Excel make ‘an excelent basis fr these simultions, We wl alo sce thi hee are some fetes of etre vehicles tat make the mathematical modeling of performance easier than for ter vehicles ‘The fist paramere will mode is vehicle performance. By performance we mean scceleration and top speed ~ an area where elec vehicles have a reputation of being ‘very poo. Iti necessary that any lacie vehicle hs a perfomunce that allows st the very least to blend safely with onary ciy tai. Mary would argue that the eformance should beat lest a good a current IC ergine vice flare eae sales Seto be achieved ‘Another vitally important feature of electri vehicle hat we mast be ale 1 pre is ‘hei range. This can also be mathematically modelled, nd compute peograms make this ‘ite straightforward, The mathematics we wil develop wil allow us to se the effects fof changing things like hater type and eapocty, aswell sal eter aspects of vehicle ‘design, on range This i an esential ool forte vehicle designer, ‘We Wl goon 10 show ow the data produced by th smton can ako have other uses in adon to predicting performance and range. Fu example, we wil sce how dt boot the motor oe and speed can be use to optimise the compromises involved in the design ofthe motor and the subsystems, ‘1 kt ly & Smid Pine Ey ey & Soe1 lei Vehicle Tecnology Expand, Soe Eon 82. Traclive Effort 82.1 Introduction “The fit stepin vehicle performance madellng so reduce an equation forthe required “ative efor Thisi the force propeling the vice foward, wansoited othe round through the ve wheels (Consider avhile of mas, proseding at veloc v up a slope ofa Figure 81. The Force propel the following Voasin ie vehicle forward the tative efor, bas accomplish + overcome the cling resistance overcome the aerodyramic rags 1 provide he force neeéed to overcome the component of the vehicle's weight ating oven the slope: + tecleate the vehicle, i th velocity 6 not constant We wl conser each ofthese fn um, 82.2 Rolling Resistance Force “The rong sistance i primaily de to the hysteresis loses in the vile yes. ton Jn beatings snd the gearing syste alto py ther pr. The rolling Yesstunce i p>voxi- imately consn, and hardly depends on vehicle speed. ft is proportional o vehicle eight. ‘The quar is Foy mae ap wheres, sth coeficient of rolling resistance. The main Factors convoling athe {ype of rein theyre peste. Any ey wll ow this very wel ~ the freewheeling Performance of brycle Becones much elie if the yes ae pumped up 10 high Presse thoegh the ride may be less comfonable "The valeof can reasonably realy be found by pling avec ata seady very ow speed nd manning he fee eye Yeo Figute 8 The oss sting a eice moving op opese Voice Modeling 189 ‘Typical values of ye, ae 0.015 fra radial ply te, down to about 0005 for tyes developed especialy fr elec vehicles 823 Aerodynamic Drag “This pat ofthe force is de to the frition ofthe vehicle baky moving through the Tes fonction ofthe frat area, shape, prousons suchas sde mites, dt and at passages, spoilers and many oterfactrs. The formula for this component is foacy? 82) Fag where isthe density ofthe ai, Ai the frontal area and» i the veloc. Cy isa “The dr coetfiient Cy canbe reduce by good vice design. epi vlue for 2 saloon cari 03, but some cece vehicle desins have achieved values as fw as 0.19. ‘There is greater oppor foe redueing C, la elecric vehicle design because there i ‘ore flexibility inthe location of the mor components, and thet set nee for coating si ducting and under-vebicle pipework However, some vehicles, suchas mowreyces Sind buses, will inevitably hive much larger values, and Cy, Bgures of around 07 ae oc typical in such cases “The deity of ai does of cure vary with temperature alitade and humidity. However 4 value of 1.25kgm" eu reasonable value fo ue inmost cases. Provided tat ST unis fre uted (mi For A m8"! for) then the vale of Fy ill be given in ewtons 8.24 Hill Climbing Force “The force need o drive the vehicle wp a slope i the mos strighforwad 0 fn. 1s simply the component ofthe vehicle weight that act along the slope. By sinple elation of forces we see that Fe smgsing ws 8.25 Acceleration Force 1 the velocity ofthe vehicle i hanging, then clearly a force will nee tobe applied in adit to the forces showin Figure 8.1. This ore will provide the ear aceleraion Othe vehicle an is given hy the we-nown equation dered rom Newions thd Fiy=me a However for a more accurate picture ofthe force needed wo aeeerate the vehicle we should ayo consider the force needed to make the oatng pre turn Faster In other ‘words, we need 10 conidr rotational eseeraton a well a linear acceleraion. The ‘ain issue ere isthe else motor ~ not neceseary becouse ofits paticlrly High ‘moment of ine, but because othe higher ang speeds. Referring to Figue 82, clealy the atl torque equals F,/. where isthe radius of the tyre and F, the tac efor dlivered bythe powervai. IG i he gest ratoogy Tapa, Second Ton grarnioee igre 2A siple aangeent for connecting mote a dive whee ofthe sytem connecting the motor 10 the ale and T is the motor torque, then we ean Say that « Sr 6) and Fa ‘We wil as tis ation agin when we develop fl equations for vehicle performance ‘We should sho ote axle angular sped equals adans per second, so motor sgular speed is ox ote 06 and, smialy, motor angular acceleration is = ofa “The exe id fr is ng scion ie xo! whe Fite ne es of ero He mae Te ace ew ‘Spon empl aeration (0) oan by nb th eon shunt 3) o k ea wy eS ixGl or hn ‘We mus ot that in these simple equations we have assume thatthe gear system is lone effin ~cabses no loses. Since the system wll usually be very simp the cficeney isotten very high: However, twill ever Be 100%, and so we shoul eine ‘he equation by incorporating the gear stem elfiincy ny. The owe requied ill be slg lager, so Equation (8.7) canbe refined to oslest Vehicle Modeling wi ‘Typical values forthe constants ere are 40 for Gir and D02Skg? for he moment of ineria. These are for © 3OKW motor, driving a car wich reaches 6Okph ata moter Speed of 7000 rpm. Such a car would peobsbly weigh abot SOOKE. The 162/72 term in Equation (88) will ave a value of about 40 kg in this case In otber wor, the angular acceleration force given by Equation (8) will ypialy be much smal than the linea acceleration free given by Eguaton (84) In this specific (ut reasonably typical) case it wil be smaller bythe rato $0 60s B-008 Tew ite often ur ou thatthe moment of neta ofthe motor wil ot he Known sich eases a reasonable approximation i simply wo increas the mass by 5% i Equation (4), and to ignore the Fay term. % 826 Total Tractive Effort “The otal tractive efor isthe sm of al these foes From Et Fast Fac Fiat Fog 9 here 1 Fis he elling resistance force, given by Exton (8.1 1 Fy isthe aerodynamic drag. given by Equation (82) 1 Felis the hill liming frets given By Equation (83) 1 Fi isthe force requited to give linear acelraton given by Equation (8.4) + Fe the fore required to give angular acceleration tote rotating motor, given by Evasion (3) We should note ha Fi, and Fy wl Be negative if the vile is swing down, and that Fi will be negative iis going down 8.3. Modelling Vehicle Acceleration 83.1 Acceleration Performance Parameters “The aceerton of a car or motorcycle is a key performance indicator, though there is 1 standard measure used. Typically the fe t acelerte rom stands to 0p, oF 30 or SO%ph, willbe give. The nearest o such a sands or elecnie vehicles are the (0-30 and 0-SOkph times, hough tes ines are not given For lve. ‘Such acceleration figures are found from simon or ten of va vehicles, For {engine vehicles this is done ot maximum poser. Simi. fr elec vehicles perfor mance simulations af caid out a maximum loge. ‘ie have aleady seen in Chapter 7 thatthe maximum tore of an electie maori 2 fay simple function of angular sped. In most eases, at low speed, the maxim trade isa const, unt the motor speed reaches aerial wea afer which the Lrg al2 ecuie Veil Technology Expie Second Eton In the case af “bashed shunt or permanent magnet (PM DC motor the tor ils linearly with increasing seed Inthe ease of most ether types of motor, the torue fll in sch 3 way atthe power remains ons “dive whet asin Equation (86) derived above. So, we can say that Fora ats oF Ei 68 T= Ta ‘Once this censtant torque phase is passed, tat w > a, oF v= 7/G)a. then either the power is constant, an most brshlst type motors, ahd we have Tate Tat Tat. Toate 10) o "Ge fe Cr the torque alls soning othe linear equation we eet in Seton 7.1.2 r Tet-ko which, when Equation (86) 8 substituted fr angular speed, gives : i !Se awn Nes Sir i ee rage nara Se en racy Doige? eee aoa moet Fig = mang + O62SAC a eee ae rer et We have skeudy noted that 7. the motor lorgue. is either 8 constant or 2 simple function of sped {Equations (810) and (811). So, Equation (8.13) canbe reduced 10 & tieenial equation, oft onder, for he weleity Ths the value of» can be found for any vais f For ennpl n the inital aceertion phase, whe = Ty Egtion (8.12) becomes peas aoc es ae eae ee icipaes acest uncelecun tonieo steamed cree caren cca pap ——Ere Vell Meg 3 Figure 3. Eloric str fhe ype snl varios pat inti caper. The photog 83.2. Modelling the Acceleration of an Electric Scooter Fe our fist example we wil ake an elec scoter. No particular model is being ‘ursdered, but the vehicle is siilar to the elesreseotes made by Peugeot snd EVS, tmexampe of which i shown in Figure 83. + The elecric scooter fas 8 mass of |S, wih atypia pasenger of mass 7OKg, 0 foal mane = TASK 1 The moment of ine of the motor is ot known, So we will adopt the expeder suggested the end of Section 825, and increase m By 5% inthe lneraceleraion term only. A vale of 198K wl hos be wed fom min the Gal tm oF Equation &1) 1 The diag cosfcient Cy is estimated as 075, a reasonable value fora small come wth Tail stp" ding Se 1+ The froma area of vehicle an rider is 06 1 the ites and whoo! bearings give a coecient of rolling essance, 1, = 0.007, 1 The motor is connected to the rea wheel using 8 21 ratio bel sytem. and the whee diameter is 2em. Thus G = 2and y= 021m, + The motors un TEV “Lynch ype motor ofthe type discussed inthe previous chapter, Section 7.1.2 Equation (78) has been recalculated for 18. giving Te 1531.6 au ‘As in Seton 7.2 the maximum corrent contre by the maim safe curen. inthis case 250, 50, 88 shown i Equation (79), the maximum Logue Ty is HN,a Bec Vehicle Tehology Exped Second Eton + The tcl motor sped afer which the torque falls according wo Equation 8.14, cca when igo Te ‘+The gear system ie tery simple, and of low rao, so we can assume a good efficiency. A aloe of ny of O48 i esinaed. An effet ofthis wll be to reduce the tong, and So this facto wil be applied to the tog Be 183-1168 0 \0seads-* When the torque i constant, asin Equation (8.13), we have 12+ 02810" + 194 fe thus 194 = 904-0281 andso 21570001450" ws) “This equation hols ul dhe torque begins to fall when a =a, = 103 rads, which comesponds to 103 1121/2 = 108m s". After this pont the toque is governed by Equation (5.14. If we subsite tis, and ie oer constants, into Equation (8.12) we bin = 7 a9 (188-162) «0m 38 ‘Tere are many practical and simple ways of solving these diferent equation. Many oer calculators wal solve sich equation, remembering tat thee is 8 simple inital Condition that y= O-when + =O. However the most voraile next slp i 0 ddve 2 ‘Sle numerical soluion, which can thea easily be used in Excel or MATLAB®. The erivaive of» is smyth difference Between consecutive values of» vied bythe time sep. Applying ts w Equation (8.13) gves us Saath 2 1.57 00148) For progr sich as Exec! or MATLAB® we necd 10 rearange this equation 0 obtain the valve ofthe nea velocity from th curren velocity. Ths is done as follows p91 = Hp $81 (LST — 00014502) an“This equation tos for velocities upto the erica velocity of 18s afer which we have toute Bqaton (8.16), approximated in exactly the sme way a8 we have just dane for Equation (8:15), which gives yan = ty +4 x (7.30 ~ 0.530 ~ 00014512) es) ‘The MATLAB script ile below shows how to soe these equations using thie pro ram. Figure Bi plot ofthe soltion vsing atime sep of 31 seconds: Exactly the Same result can be cbained with almost equal ease using Eacel It left as an exerce forthe reader to produce an Excel spresdetet o MATLAB® sp le where many of the machine parce, soc a the gar ratio G, are left as eal altered warble, So thatthe effect of changing ton the vehicle's performance can be noted Pabaaeeteeiey 7 eh ‘The rest ofthis simuaton is shown in Figure 8.4, and shows hat he perormance is somewhat as might be expected from a fay low-power mor The aeeeraton Is tunspectacla, and the top sped is about 30 mph or 48 Kp, on lve ground Howes, this is reasonably compatible wit safe ety rds. The acceleration of ch vehicles i some. ties given i ems ofthe standing start 100 mimes, and he power of soch MATLAB® Script isis that they can very easily be changed to produce sch information I the Plot ine nthe file above is changed as follows, ten Figure 8 bined. While we are not lining that our model exactly represents any parila commercial design, it worth noting the following points from the specication of the Peugeot SevotElee performance speciationsic Weise Tstnology Exped, Second Eton pom (WOT) aezataon of a et” yore 84 A gnph showing the aseleron of dein of electric ttre the lion ‘fearon (15) al (816) 5 eproiroed by Eston 6.17) ad (18), with 90. eco tie sep Distance nian Futloowe (WO acelin fle see Figure RE_Distncsime sap fru else sso, showing the ne 1 cover 1 a 10 4# Maximum speed:48kph 28 mph) {10m from standing str ime:8 2 seconds 100m fom standing start dine: 12 second 11s very cleat, fom Figures 8.4 and 8, thatthe performance of or simulated vehicle is remarkably sila. 83.3 Modelling the Acceleration of a Small Car For our second example we will use a vehicle that had important impact onthe recent evelopment of elec cas. The GM EVI was arguably the Ast modern electric car fom ‘one ofthe realy large motor companies. It incopovated technologies hat were quie nove ‘ven twas inroduced, Several views ofthe vehicle ae shown in Figure 14S. Farther els of his ear are given in Secon 143, but as fata simulating ts performance, te sain features ae an ulilow deagcoefcent Cy of 0.1% very Tow coefficient of rlingessance, of 0.0048; the ute of variable Fequency sndotion mar, operating at very high speed = early 12000 pm at maximum sped Forte data is taken from company information’ about the vei: Vehicle mass ~ 1400kg2 Then adda driver and © passenger ech weighing 7Okg. ving m= 1540s ‘+ The mor's moment of ine is not known. However, compared withthe mass of such 2 heavy vehicle his wil be very Tow. The wheels are aso very light We will approximate this term by increasing the mass very modest 1 1560 kg inthe fal ‘aim of Equation (8:12) 45 The gearatio fs 11 thas G = 1, The sre rads ix 030m. 1 For the motor, Tygy = MON at, = Ta3rads~! (Note that his means T = Ty fill» = 198m" 13 kph, + Above 19.8ms ! the motoe operates at a constant 102KW, a his a WOT test. So 236 The frontal area A= 182 ‘The efceney ofthe single-speed dive coupling between motor and ale i estimated 8 95%, so n, = 09. The values ofthe tore T wil be reduced by 8 fatr of 095 “This sign iower figure i Becwse there it «final drive and a higher ratio gearbox than inthe ast example. eh rey wo thy oo a edawe Else Voile Telogy Espn Second Eaton ‘These values can now be pu into Equation (8.12) giving forthe fist phase when the rmotr tout Is constant 0.95 x37 « 140=724-40.2160" + 13608 a ie a : 2 3.1 000137 1) $aau-o. 6. ‘Once the sped has reached 19.8 ms! the velocity is given by the ferential equation ts _ any 1.045 — 000013762 20) “The procedure fr finding the acelertion i very sir to the fst example: the only extra complitio that when the velocity reaches 35.8 ms~" i stops rng, Because at ths pain the motor contr lms futher acceleration. ‘Before any program such as Excel or MATLAB® can be used the key equations, uations (19) and (820), ast be put nto ‘rite diference" Form. Tiss done exacly ase did For Equations (815) and (16). The two equations become 1, +4 (311 = 0.0001372) 2 2. saenrt(S!-ao-anmind) aan “The MATLAB® serpt le fr these equations is vey similar to that fr the elec scooter given above 20 is ot given ere inthe mai ext, ut can be four in Append The plot of velocity against time is shown in Figure 86. Looking a igure 8.6, we in se tha the ime ten to reach 96Kph, which s6O mph, is just under 9 seconds. Not ‘nly is his avery respectable erfrunce, but kaso exactly the sae as given inthe ‘heal gure for the performance ofthe eal vehicle "We have thus seen dat alhiough nt overly complex this method of modelling vehicle performance gives rest that re valdaed by real Ja. We can therefore fave confidence Inihis method. However, vices ae required odo more than just accelerate well fom {sanding stan, and in the neat Section We Lckle the more comples sue Of range ‘modeling 84 Modelling Electric Vehicle Range 84.1 Driving Cycles 1c wellknown that he range of electric vehicles i a major problem nthe min his is boease iis 30 had to store eleccal energy’ effin. In any cas, this problem ' cetinly etc! isve inthe design of any Cece vehicle, There aw two types of Calelation o est tat ean be performed with reard to the range ofa veile