AdÉ¡fL ¢h−hL¡e¾c p¡E

cnÑe ¢hi¡N
¢hcÉ¡eNl L−mS

Topic : pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ ( Probability)
 pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ ( Probability)

Ah−l¡q£ B−l¡q£

plm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu S¢Vm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu

pl¡p¢l p¡lZ£ −b−L S¢Vm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu

plm J üa¿»
üa¿» OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ k¤š² L−l S¢Vm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu

c¤ lLj OVe¡ pw−k¡N

pw−k±¢NL OVe¡ (L Hhw M OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ : …−Zl p§œ) °hL¢ÒfL OVe¡

 °hL¢ÒfL OVe¡

L) L Abh¡ M OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ : −k¡−Nl p§œ (¢hpwh¡c£ ¢hLÒf)

M) A¢hpwh¡c£ °hL¢ÒfL OVe¡ (A¿¹a HL¢V h¡ HLh¡l ....) −k¡−Nl p§œ fË−u¡N

Aüa¿»
Aüa¿» OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ k¤š² L−l S¢Vm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu

L) Aüa¿» OVe¡l pw−k¡N (k¢c - a¡q−m L Hhw M-Hl pñ¡hÉa¡ : …−Zl

p§−œl fË−u¡N)
M) Aüa¿» OVe¡l pw−k¡N ¢c−u N¢Wa °hL¢ÒfL OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ : …Z J
−k¡−Nl k¤š² fË−u¡N
B−l¡q£

B−l¡q£ pñ¡hÉa¡ -f¢lpwMÉ¡ ašÄ B−l¡q£ ¢pÜ¡¿¹ J pñ¡hÉa¡

pñ¡hÉa¡ B−l¡q Ae¤j¡−el HL¢V ¢h−no °h¢nøÉz B−l¡q
Ae¤j¡−el ¢pÜ¡¿¹ phÑc¡C pñ¡hÉ quz B−l¡q Ae¤j¡e pÇf−LÑ
Bjl¡ Hl f§−hÑ −k pLm B−m¡Qe¡ L−l¢R, −pM¡−e h¡−l
h¡−l pñha, pñ¡hÉ, pñ¡hÉa¡ H Lb¡…¢m hýh¡l fË−u¡N
q−a −c−M¢Rz Bjl¡ BlJ S¡¢e B−l¡q k¤¢š²j¡œC ¢pÜ¡¿¹
A°hdz a¡C Hl ¢pÜ¡¿¹ LM−e¡ pñ¡hÉa¡l j¡œ¡ A¢aœ²j
L−l −k−a f¡−l e¡z pñ¡hÉa¡ h¡−LÉl djÑz LM−e¡ hÙ¹¥ h¡
OVe¡l djÑ q−a f¡−l e¡z HC AdÉ¡−u Bjl¡ −L¡e h¡LÉ Lj
pñ¡hÉ, Bh¡l −L¡e h¡LÉ −hn£ pñ¡hÉ - −Lhm HCV¥L¥
B−m¡Qe¡l j−dÉ p£j¡hÜ l¡Mh e¡z Bjl¡ HMe pñ¡hÉa¡l
j¡œ¡ S¡eh Hhw j¡œ¡ ¢Li¡−h ¢eZÑu Ll−a qu a¡J S¡ehz
dl¡k¡LÚ HL¢V (¢eM¤ya) j¤â¡ Vp Ll−m a¡l −p¡S¡ h¡ E−ÒV¡ ¢cL
(Head or Tail) JW¡l pñhÉa¡ La ? Bjl¡ S¡¢e j¤â¡l c¤¢V ¢cL
x Head h¡ −p¡S¡ ¢cL Hhw Tail h¡ E−ÒV¡ ¢cLz HMe HL¢V
¢eM¤ya j¤â¡ Vp Ll−m Head(H) h¡ Tail(T) JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ pj¡e
pj¡ez L¡−SC Bjl¡ hm−a f¡¢l −p¡S¡ J E−ÒV¡ ¢cL JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ 50 - 50, h¡ Bd¡B¢d, h¡ ½ z
a−h ph pju H lLj ¢e¢cÑøi¡−h −L¡e pwMÉ¡ h¡
iNÀ¡wn ¢c−u −k ph pju pñ¡hÉa¡ hÉš² Ll¡ k¡u Hje ¢L¿¹¥ euz
−kje "L−l¡e¡ i¡Cl¡−p ¢hnÄ j¡eh S¡¢a dÆwp q−h', "L−l¡e¡
−j¡L¡¢hm¡ Ll−a e¡ f¡l−m −L¾cÊ plL¡−ll fae A¢eh¡kÑ'- H ph
h¡−LÉl pñ¡hÉa¡ iNÀ¡wn ¢c−u hÉš² Ll¡ pñh euz a¡C Bj¡−cl
LM−e¡ LM−e¡ pñha, M¤h pñ¡hÉ h¡ fË¡u ¢e¢ÕQa H ph ¢h−noZ
¢e−u p¿¹¥ø b¡L−a quz
Bjl¡ −L¡e h¡−LÉl j−dÉ ""pñha'' Lb¡¢V hÉhq¡l L¢lz
¢L¿¹ HLC h¡−LÉl HL¢V−a ""pñha'' e¡ ¢c−u Hhw I
h¡LÉ¢V f¤el¡u ¢m−M ""pñha'' Lb¡¢V hÉhq¡l L−l −L¡e
A¢a¢lš² abÉ −cJu¡ qu e¡z −kje l¡j fl£r¡u f¡n
L−l−R, Bh¡l l¡j pñha fl£r¡u f¡n L−l−Rz ea¥e −L¡e
abÉ ¢L¿¹¥ −cJu¡ qm e¡z HMe fËnÀ qm a¡q−m Bjl¡
""pñha'' h¡ ""pñ¡hÉ'' Lb¡…¢m h¡−LÉ hÉhq¡l L¢l −Le ?
¢e−jÀ¡š² B−m¡Qe¡u Bjl¡ Eš² fË−nÀlC Ešl f¡Ju¡l −Qø¡
Llhz
Bp−m ""pñ¡hÉ'' Lb¡¢V B−f¢rLz pñ¡hÉa¡ - h¡LÉ ¢e×L¡¢na qu −L¡e
−qa¥h¡LÉ −b−Lz −R¡V-hs, L¡−R-c§−l, qÊÊü-c£OÑ - H ph ¢h−no−Zl ja
""pñ¡hÉ'' Lb¡¢VJ B−f¢rLz "H¢V −R¡V' hm¡ AbÑq£ez hm−a q−h H¢V
J¢Vl −Q−u −R¡Vz ¢L¿¹¥ ah¤J Bjl¡ h¢m HC lp−N¡õ¡¢V −R¡V, f¡Ve¡ L¡−R,
¢cõ£ c§−l CaÉ¡¢c CaÉ¡¢cz h¢m, L¡lZ Bjl¡ S¡¢e −nË¡a¡ h¤T−h −L¡e hÙ¹¥l
p−‰ a¥me¡ L−l hm¢R L¡−R h¡ c§−lz −p lLj Bjl¡ h¢m x HMe hª¢ø q−h
- H h¡LÉ pñ¡hÉz H lLj E¢š² L−l H Lb¡ hm−a Q¡C −k x Hje eu −k
HMe hª¢ø q−h - H h¡−LÉl −k pñ¡hÉa¡, a¡l −Q−u HMe hª¢ø q−h - H
h¡−LÉl pñ¡hÉa¡ −hn£z L¡lZ fËbj h¡LÉ¢V −k −hn£ pñ¡hÉ a¡l j§−m Bj¡l
q¡−a abÉ fËj¡Z B−Rz −kje BL¡−n Oe L¡−m¡ −jO, q¡Ju¡ A¢g−pl
f§hÑ¡i¡p CaÉ¡¢c CaÉ¡¢cz H ph a−bÉl ¢i¢š−a B¢j c¡h£ L¢l HMe pñha
hª¢ø q−h AbÑ¡v HMe hª¢ø q−h - H h¡LÉ pñ¡hÉz a−h H ph abÉ M¤h
−S¡l¡−m¡ eu h−m Bjl¡ Hje c¡h£ Ll−a f¡¢l e¡ −k ""HMe hª¢ø q−hC''z
a−h k¤¢š²¢h‘¡−el i¡o¡u, H ph abÉ‘¡fL h¡LÉ ""HMe hª¢ø q−h'' H
h¡LÉ−L fË¢af¡c L−l e¡z
HMe Jf−l k¡ hm¡ qm a¡ Bjl¡ Hi¡−hJ hÉš² Ll−a
f¡la¡jz pñ¡hÉa¡ h¡LÉ j¡œC −L¡e-e¡-−L¡e −qa¥h¡LÉ
(f§hÑLÒf) −b−L ¢e×L¢na ¢pÜ¡¿¹ (Ae¤LÒf)z −L¡e
−qa¥h¡−LÉl p¡rÉ p¡h¤−cl ¢i¢š−aC Bjl¡ h¢m "HMe hª¢ø
q−h' - h¡LÉ¢V pñ¡hÉz a−h −k ph −qa¥h¡−LÉl ¢i¢š−a H
lLj E¢š² Ll¡ qu, −p −qa¥h¡LÉ Bjl¡ E−õM L¢l e¡z
¢L¿¹¥ k¢c −LE Bj¡−cl pñ¡hÉa¡ E¢š² pÇf−LÑ fËnÀ L−l h¡
pwnu fËL¡n L−l aMe Bjl¡ pñ¡hÉa¡ E¢š²l pjbÑ−e
−qa¥h¡LÉ E−õM L¢lz
 pñ¡hÉa¡l j¡œ¡
j¡œ¡
pñ¡hÉa¡l j¡œ¡ ¢eZÑ−ul −r−œ p¡d¡lZax OVe¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡l Lb¡ hm¡ quz Bjl¡ p¡d¡lZax −pC OVe¡−L
pñ¡hÉ h¢m, k¡l pÇf−LÑ Bj¡−cl H ¢hnÄ¡p B−R −k OVe¡¢V
e¡ OV¡l −Q−u OV¡l pñ¡he¡C −hn£z kMe hm¡ qu ""L
pñ¡hÉ'' aMe HC c¡h£ Ll¡ qu −k x A¢dL¡wn −r−œ L
OV−h, naLl¡ f’¡−nl −hn£ −r−œ L OV−h, L-Hl
pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/2-Hl −hn£z Bh¡l N¡¢Z¢aL ¢q−p−h −a¡j¡l
mV¡l£ −Sa¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ cn mr i¡−Nl HL i¡Nz aMe
Bjl¡ ¢L¿¹¥ h¢m e¡ −k, a¥¢j mV¡l£ ¢Sa−h - H¢V pñ¡hÉz
a−h N¢Z−a pñ¡hÉa¡ hm−a −h¡T¡u ¢eÕQua¡ J Apñhfla¡l
jdÉhaÑ£ −L¡e j¡œ¡z N¢Z−a 1 ¢c−u ¢eÕQua¡ Bl 0 ¢c−u
Apñhfla¡−L −h¡T¡−e¡ quz Bl H−cl jdÉhaÑ£ −R¡V hs iNÀ¡wn
¢c−u −h¡T¡−e¡ qu pñ¡hÉa¡l ¢h¢iæ j¡œ¡z −kje Vp Ll¡ j¤â¡¢Vl
−p¡S¡ h¡ E−ÒV¡ ¢cL JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/2z a−h N¢Z−a ¢eÕQua¡
Bl Apñhfla¡−L pñ¡hÉa¡l ¢h−no ¢h−no j¡œ¡(pñ¡hÉa¡l p£j¡
-¢eÕQua¡ pñ¡hÉa¡l EÜÑaj fË¡¢¿¹L p£j¡, Bl Apñhfla¡−L
¢ejÀaj fË¡¢¿¹L p£j¡ h−m) h−m NZ¡ Ll¡ quz −kje Vp Ll¡ j¤â¡¢V
−p¡S¡ h¡ E−ÒV¡ ¢cL-Hl −L¡e HL¢V ¢cL JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ L£ ? Hl
Eš−l Bjl¡ h¢m e¡ x −k −L¡e ¢cL JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ −eC, OVe¡¢V
p¤¤¢e¢ÕQaz h¢m x −k −L¡e ¢cL JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1 z Bl HL¢V fËnÀ
x −p¡S¡ Hhw E−ÒV¡ ¢cL HLp−‰ Jf−l JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ L£ ? H
lLj fË−nÀl Eš−l Bjl¡ h¢m x Hl pñ¡hÉa¡ 0 ( L¡lZ −p¡S¡
Hhw E−ÒV¡ ¢c−Ll HLp−‰ Jf−l JW¡ Apñh hÉ¡f¡l)z
pñ¡hÉa¡ pÇf−LÑ c¤lLj a−šÄl p¡r¡v f¡Ju¡
f¡Ju¡ k¡u x
L) Ah−l¡q£ h¡ f§hÑ¢pÜ ašÄ (a-priori theory)
M) B−l¡q£ h¡ flap¡dÉ ašÄ (a posteriori theory)
h¡ hm¡ −k−a f¡−l, pñ¡hÉa¡ c¤ lLj x
L) Ah−l¡q£ pñ¡hÉa¡ J
M) B−l¡q£, fkÑ−hrZ¢eiÑl h¡ f¢lpwMÉ¡e¢i¢šL pñ¡hÉa¡
h¡ hm−a f¡¢l, pñ¡hÉa¡ NZe¡ fÜ¢a c¤ lLj x
L) Ah−l¡q£ NZe¡ fÜ¢a J
M) B−l¡q£ NZe¡ fÜ¢az
Ah−l¡q£
Ah−l¡q£ pñ¡hÉa
pñ¡hÉa¡¡
Ah−l¡q£ pñ¡hÉa¡ ašÄ h¡ f§hÑa¢pÜ pñ¡hÉa¡ ašÄ B−m¡¢Qa qu
N¢Zan¡−Ù»z Bp−m H¢V N¢Z−alC HL Awnz N¢Z−a Hl©f pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢e×L¡ne
Ll¡ qu L−uL¢V üa¢pÜ f§hÑü£L«¢a h¡ paÉ h−m d−l −eJu¡ −qa¥-h¡LÉ
−b−Lz Bl HSeÉ fkÑ−hrZ h¡ fl£r−Zl −L¡e fË−u¡Se −eCz −kje, N¢Z−al
¢q−p−h HL¢V Vp Ll¡ ¢eyM¤a j¤â¡l −p¡S¡ ¢cL Jf−l JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/2 z
H pñ¡hÉa¡ S¡e¡l SeÉ j¤â¡ VpÚ L−l −cM¡l clL¡l f−s e¡z L¡lZ VpÚ Ll¡l
f§−hÑ −b−L Bjl¡ S¡¢e −p¡S¡ ¢cL JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/2 z Bh¡l E−ÒV¡ ¢cL
Jf−l JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡J 1/2 z HC pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢expªa qu ¢e−jÀ¡š²
−qa¥h¡LÉ…¢m −b−L x
j¤â¡¢V ¢eyM¤a VpÚ Ll−m H¢V ¢Qv q−u fs−h ( M¡s¡ q−u d¡−ll Jfl
cy¡¢s−u b¡L−h e¡), H¢V Hjei¡−h °al£ −k Hl −L¡−e¡ ¢h−no ¢cL
Jf−l JW¡l −T¡yL −eC, VpÚ Ll−a ¢N−u −LE −L¡e L¡lp¡¢S Ll−R
e¡, Hl −k −L¡e ¢cL JW¡l pñ¡he¡ pj¡e pj¡e CaÉ¡¢c CaÉ¡¢cz
Ah−l¡q£ pñ¡hÉa¡ NZe¡ fÜ¢a x
pñ¡hÉa¡ pÇf−LÑ HMe Bjl¡ HL¢V p¡d¡lZ p§−œl
Lb¡ S¡ehz HC p§œ ¢c−u Bjl¡ plm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
¢eZÑu Ll−a f¡lhz f§hÑa¢pÜ h¡ flap¡dÉ −k ašÄC NËqZ
Ll¡ −q¡L e¡ −Le, HC p§œ¢V Bj¡−cl −j−e ¢e−a q−hz
p§œ¢Vl hÉ¡MÉ¡l f§−hÑ Bjl¡ L−uL¢V Lb¡ J pw−rfL
fËa£−Ll j¡−e −S−e −ehz
Ae¤Lm ¨ gm (favourable outcome [f])
dl¡ k¡LÚ L e¡jL OVe¡¢V O−V ¢Le¡ a¡ −cM−a Q¡C h¡ L-
Hl pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu Ll−a Q¡Cz H−r−œ Bjl¡ fËb−j −cMh L-Hl
fË¢aL¨m gm…¢m L£z dl¡k¡LÚ, HLh¡l m¤−X¡l c¡e −g−m ¢h−S¡s
pwMÉ¡ JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La a¡ S¡e−a Q¡Cz HM¡−e 1 , 3, 5 JW¡
fË¡p¢‰L OVe¡¢Vl Ae¤L¨m gmz
fË¢aL¨
aLm
¨ gm (unfavourable outcome [u])
HMe L-OV¡ k¢c Ae¤L¨m gm qu, a¡q−m L-Hl e¡ OV¡
qm fË¢aL¨m h¡ ¢hl¦Ü h¡ f¢lf§lL gmz −kje m¤−X¡l ¢h−S¡s
pwMÉ¡ JW¡ k¢c Ae¤L¨m gm qu, a¡q−m fË¢aL¨m gm q−h ¢h−S¡s
pwMÉ¡ e¡ JW¡ h¡ −S¡s pwMÉ¡ JW¡z
−k p§œ¢V H−r−œ fË−u¡N Ll¡ q−h a¡−a L−uL¢V pw−rfL fËa£L hÉhq¡l
Ll¡ q−hz H…¢m ¢e−jÀ B−m¡Qe¡ Ll¡ qm x
OVe¡¢Vl Ae¤L¨m gm −h¡T¡−a Bjl¡ A h¡ f hÉhq¡l Llhz
Ae¤L¨m ¢hL−Òfl pwMÉ¡ −h¡T¡−az
OVe¡¢Vl fË¢aL¨m gm −h¡T¡−a Bjl¡ f h¡ u hÉhq¡l Llhz
fË¢aL¨m ¢hL−Òfl pwMÉ¡ −h¡T¡−az
−j¡V ¢hL−Òfl pwMÉ¡
pwMÉ¡ (total number
of alternatives or outcome [t]) -
OVe¡¢V −k ¢h−no −nËZ£l fl£r¡l g−m
O−V a¡l ph pñ¡hÉ g−ml pwMÉ¡ −h¡T¡−az j h¡ t hÉhq¡l Llhz
cªø¡¿¹ x
dl¡ k¡LÚ R‚¡ JW¡ qm fË¡p¢‰L OVe¡z HLh¡l m¤−X¡l c¡e
−gm−m R‚¡ Lai¡−h EW−a f¡−l ? −Lhm HLi¡−h R‚¡ EW−a
f¡−lz a¡C HM¡−e Ae¤L¨m gm AbÑ¡v A h¡ f = 1 z Bl ¢hl¦Ü h¡
f¢lf§lL OVe¡ h¡ R‚¡ e¡ JW¡ OV−a f¡−l fy¡Qi¡−h x kb¡ - (i) 1
EW−m, (ii) 2 EW−m, (iii) 3 EW−m, (iv) 4 EW−m h¡ (v) 5 EW−mz
p¤a
¤ l¡w HM¡−e f h¡ u = 5 z
Bh¡l k¢c m¤−X¡l c¡−e −L¡e −S¡s pwMÉ¡ −f−a Q¡C x
HM¡−e fË¡p¢‰L OVe¡ qm x −S¡s pwMÉ¡ JW¡z H OVe¡ OV−a f¡−l
¢aei¡−h x (i) 2 EW−m, (ii) 4 EW−m h¡ (iii) 6 EW−mz p¤¤al¡w A
h¡ f = 3 z Bh¡l fË¢aL¨m h¡ ¢hl¦Ü OVe¡J OV−a f¡−l ¢aei¡−h
x (i) 1 EW−m, (ii) 3 EW−m h¡ (iii) 5 EW−mz p¤¤al¡w HM¡−e f h¡
u = 3z
a¡q−m Bjl¡ pq−SC hm−a f¡¢l −j¡V ¢hLÒf AbÑ¡v j h¡ m = A+f h¡ f+u z
kb¡ dl¡k¡LÚ R‚¡ JW¡ qm fË¡p¢‰L OVe¡z a¡q−m A h¡ f = 1, f h¡ u = 5, Bl
−j¡V ¢hLÒf AbÑ¡v j h¡ m q−h A+f (f+u) AbÑ¡v 1+5 = 6 z H Lb¡l AbÑ qm
m¤−X¡l O¤y¢V ¢e−rf Ll−m ka ¢h¢iæi¡−h −L¡−e¡ ¢cL Jf−l EW−a f¡−l a¡l, AbÑ¡v
−j¡V g−ml pwMÉ¡ qm 6 z
plm OVe¡ OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu
Hh¡l Bjl¡ (plm OVe¡l) pñ¡hÉa¡ NZe¡l p¡d¡lZ p§œ¢V ¢e−jÀ¡š²i¡−h
hÉš² Ll−a f¡¢l x
pñ¡hÉa¡ = A/A+f h¡ pñ¡hÉa¡ = A/j

h¡ Hi¡−h x P = f/f+u h¡ P = f/t

(Jf−ll −mM¡…¢m fs−a q−h: ¢f CL¥u¡m V¥ HgÚ h¡C HgÚ fÔ¡p CE h¡ ¢f = HgÚ
h¡C ¢V)
H p§œ fË−u¡N Ll¡ k¡u
(1) k¢c −j¡V ¢hL−Òfl pwMÉ¡ S¡e¡ b¡−L (j-Hl j§mÉ S¡e¡ b¡−L), Hhw
(2) k¢c S¡e¡ b¡−L −k ¢hLÒf …¢ml fË−aÉL¢V pjpñ¡hÉ, Hhw
(3) k¢c Ae¤L¨m ¢hL−Òfl pwMÉ¡ (A-Hl j§mÉ) S¡e¡ b¡−Lz
¢àa£u f§hÑü£L«¢a−L - fË−aÉL¢V ¢hLÒf pjpñ¡hÉ H f§hÑü£L«¢a−L - h−m
pjpñ¡hÉa¡l e£¢a h¡ A-f¡bÑ−LÉl e£¢a (Principle of
Indifference) z H e£¢a¢V−L Hi¡−h hÉš² Ll¡ −k−a f¡−l x
AeÉ −L¡e ¢hL−Òfl f¢lh−aÑ ¢h−no −L¡e HL¢V OVe¡ OV−h - H
Lb¡ j−e Ll¡l
k¢c −qa¥ e¡ b¡−L a¡q−m fË−aÉL¢V ¢hL−Òfl pjpñ¡hÉa¡ pj¡ez
Jf−l −k p§œ E−õM Ll¡ qm, a¡ fË−u¡N L−l plm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ M¤h
pq−SC ¢eZÑu Ll¡Ll¡ k¡−hz
−kje ¢e−jÀ LaL…¢m plm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑ−ul Ec¡qlZ −cJu¡
qmz
(1) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a j¤â¡ Vp Ll−m a¡l −p¡S¡ ¢cL JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
1/2 ( j = 2, A = 1)z
(2) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a m¤−X¡l O¤y¢V ¢e−u c¡e −gm−m 3 JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
1/6 ( j=6, A=1) z
(3) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a m¤−X¡l O¤y¢V ¢e−u c¡e −gm−m 2-Hl −Q−u hs
pwMÉ¡ JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ L£ ? H−r−œ j = 6, A = 4(L¡lZ Ae¤L¨m
gm Q¡li¡−h f¡Ju¡ k¡u x 3, 4, 5, h¡ 6 EW−m)z a¡C H−r−œ
pñ¡hÉa¡ = 4/6 h¡ 2/3 z
(4) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a m¤−X¡l O¤y¢V ¢e−u c¡e −gm−m ¢h−S¡s pwMÉ¡ JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ La ? j = 6, Bl A = 3 (L¡lZ, ¢h−S¡s pwMÉ¡
EW−a f¡−l ¢aei¡−h x 1, 3, h¡ 5 EW−m) a¡C H−r−œ pñ¡hÉa¡
qm 3/6 h¡ 1/2 z
(5) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a h¡¢™−ml i¡m L−l iy¡S¡ a¡p −b−L −L¡−e¡ HL¢V
a¡p −V−e ¢e−m a¡ −V‚¡ qJu¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ? HM¡−e j = 52z
Ae¤L¨m gm −f−a f¡¢l Q¡li¡−h x qla−el −V‚¡ EW−m, l¦Ca−el
−V‚¡ EW−m, ¢Q¢sa−el −V‚¡ EW−m, h¡ Cú¡f−el −V‚¡ EW−mz
L¡−SC A = 4z p¤¤al¡w HL¢V −V‚¡ JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 4/52 h¡
1/13 z
(6) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a h¡¢™−ml i¡m L−l iy¡S¡ a¡p −b−L −L¡−e¡ HL¢V
a¡p −V−e ¢e−m a¡ qla−el a¡p qJu¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ? Bjl¡
S¡¢e j = 52, A = 13z (L¡lZ, HL h¡¢™m a¡−p 13¢V qlae
b¡−Lz L¡−SC qlae EW−a f¡−l 13 i¡−h x qla−el −V‚¡ h¡ c¤¢l
h¡ ¢a¢l CaÉ¡¢c CaÉ¡¢c EW−m)z L¡−SC qla−el −L¡e a¡p JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ 13/52 h¡ 1/4 z
(7) HLV¡ ¢eMy¤a m¤−X¡l Oy¤¢V ¢e−u c¡e ¢c−m −L¡e HL¢V
¢cL JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ? H−r−œ j = 6, A = 6 (L¡lZ
Bjl¡ S¡¢e m¤−X¡l Oy¤¢Vl −L¡e HL¢V ¢cL EW−a f¡−l
Rui¡−h x 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 h¡ 6 EW−m)z p¤¤al¡w H −r−œ
pñ¡hÉa¡ qm 6/6 h¡ 1 z
(8) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a j¤â¡ Vp Ll−m h¡ ¢eM¤ya m¤−X¡l O¤y¢V
¢e−rf Ll−m −V‚¡ JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ? HM¡−e c¤C −r−œ
A = 0 z L¡lZ, HM¡−e Ae¤L¨m −L¡e ¢hLÒf −eCz j¤â¡ h¡
m¤−X¡l O¤y¢V−a −V‚¡ −eCz Bl fËbj −r−œ j = 2, Bl
¢àa£u −r−œ j = 6z a¡C fËbj −r−œ pñ¡hÉa¡ 0/2 z
Bl ¢àa£u −r−œ 0/6 z Eiu −r−œC pñ¡hÉa¡ = 0 z
HMe Bjl¡ −cMh plm OVe¡l e¡ OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢Li¡−h
¢eZÑu Ll¡ k¡uz k¢c Bjl¡ plm OVe¡ OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pq−SC h¤−T b¡¢L a¡q−m I OVe¡l e¡ OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu
Ll−a −L¡e Ap¤¤¢hd¡ q−h e¡z Bjl¡ HMe f§−hÑl HLC
cªø¡−¿¹l p¡q¡−kÉ −Lhm OV¡l k¡uN¡u e¡ OV¡ h¡ fË¢aL¨m
AhÙÛ¡ E−õM Llhz f§−hÑl j−a¡C Ae¤l©f HL¢V p§−œl
j¡dÉ−j plm OVe¡ e¡-OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu Llhz p§œ¢V qm
x pñ¡hÉa¡ = f/j Abh¡ P =u/t
cªø¡¿¹ x Bjl¡ HM¡−e f§−hÑ¡š² 1-Hl S¡uN¡u 1* h¡ 2-Hl
S¡uN¡u 2* CaÉ¡¢c CaÉ¡¢c h¤Thz
(1*) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a j¤â¡ Vp Ll−m a¡l −p¡S¡ ¢cL e¡-JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/2 ( j = 2, f = 1 "−p¡S¡' e¡ EW−a f¡−l
1-i¡−h AbÑ¡v kMe "E−ÒV¡' EW−h)z
(2*) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a m¤−X¡l O¤y¢V ¢e−u c¡e −gm−m 3 e¡-JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/6 ( j=6, f=5 L¡lZ 3 e¡ EW−a f¡−l
fy¡Qi¡−h x 1, h¡ 2, h¡ 4, h¡ 5 Abh¡ 6 EW−m) z
(3*) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a m¤−X¡l O¤y¢V ¢e−u c¡e −gm−m 2-Hl −Q−u
hs pwMÉ¡ e¡-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ L£ ? H−r−œ j = 6, f = 2
(L¡lZ 2-Hl −Q−u hs pwMÉ¡ e¡-EW−a f¡−l 1 EW−m h¡ 2
EW−m)z a¡C H−r−œ pñ¡hÉa¡ = 2/6 h¡ 1/3 z
(4*) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a m¤−X¡l O¤y¢V ¢e−u c¡e −gm−m ¢h−S¡s
pwMÉ¡ e¡-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ? j = 6, Bl f = 3
(L¡lZ, ¢h−S¡s pwMÉ¡ e¡-EW−a f¡−l ¢aei¡−h x 2, 4, h¡
6 EW−m) a¡C H−r−œ pñ¡hÉa¡ qm 3/6 h¡ 1/2 z
(5*) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a h¡¢™−ml i¡m L−l iy¡S¡ a¡p −b−L
−L¡−e¡ HL¢V a¡p −V−e ¢e−m a¡ −V‚¡ e¡-qJu¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
La ? HM¡−e j = 52z −V‚¡ e¡-EW−a f¡−l 52 - 4 h¡
48 M¡e¡ a¡−pl −k −L¡−e¡ HL¢V EW−mz AbÑ¡v −V‚ e¡-JW¡
−f−a f¡¢l 48 lL−jlz p¤¤al¡w −V‚¡ e¡-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
48/52 h¡ 12/13 z
(6*) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a h¡¢™−ml i¡m L−l iy¡S¡ a¡p −b−L −L¡−e¡
HL¢V a¡p −V−e ¢e−m a¡ qla−el a¡p e¡-qJu¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
La ? Bjl¡ S¡¢e j = 52, f = 39z (L¡lZ, HL h¡¢™m
a¡−p 13¢V qlae b¡−Lz L¡−SC 13¢V qlae h¡c ¢c−m 39
M¡e¡ a¡−pl −k −L¡e HL¢V EW−m qlae e¡-JW¡ f¡Ju¡ k¡u
AbÑ¡v qlae e¡ EW−a f¡−l 39 lL−j)z L¡−SC qla−el
−L¡e a¡p e¡-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 39/52 h¡ 3/4 z
(7*) HLV¡ ¢eMy¤a m¤−X¡l Oy¤¢V ¢e−u c¡e ¢c−m −L¡e HL¢V ¢cL
Jf−l e¡-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ? H−r−œ j = 6, f = 0
(L¡lZ Bjl¡ S¡¢e m¤−X¡l Oy¤¢Vl −L¡e HL¢V ¢cL Jf−l EW−h
e¡ Hje q−a f¡−l e¡)z p¤¤al¡w H−r−œ pñ¡hÉa¡ qm 0/6 h¡
0z
(8*) HL¢V ¢eMy¤a j¤â¡ Vp Ll−m h¡ ¢eM¤ya m¤−X¡l O¤y¢V
¢e−rf Ll−m −V‚¡ e¡-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ? HM¡−e fËbj
−r−œ j = 2, f = 2(L¡lZ, −V‚¡ e¡-JW¡ −f−a f¡¢l
c¤i¡−h x −p¡S¡ ¢cL EW−m h¡ E−ÒV¡ ¢cL EW−m) z p¤¤al¡w
H−r−œ pñ¡hÉa¡ 2/2 h¡ 1 z ¢àa£u −r−œ j = 6, f =
6 (L¡lZ, m¤−X¡l O¤y¢V−a −V‚¡ e¡ EW−a f¡−l Rui¡−h x
1,2,3,4,5,6 - H−cl −k−L¡−e¡¢V EW−m)z H−r−œ pñ¡hÉa¡
6/6 h¡ 1 z pqS Lb¡u, j¤â¡ h¡ m¤−X¡l O¤y¢V−a −V‚¡
−eCz L¡−SC j¤â¡ Vp Ll−m h¡ m¤−X¡l c¡e ¢c−m ph −V‚¡
e¡ JW¡C f¡hz
S¢Vm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu x
S¢Vm OVe¡ L¡−L h−m ? −k OVe¡ ¢h−nÔoZ Ll−m
HL¡¢dL plm OVe¡ f¡Ju¡ k¡u, −k OVe¡ OV−a (h¡ e¡-OV−a)
q−m HL¡¢dL plm OVe¡ OV¡l (h¡ e¡-OV¡l) clL¡l a¡−L h−m
S¢Vm OVe¡z
−kje HL¢V ¢eM¤ya j¤â¡ c¤ h¡l Vp Ll−m, c¤ h¡lC −p¡S¡
¢cL JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ L£ ?
HM¡−e c¤ h¡l −p¡S¡ ¢cL JW¡ HL¢V S¢Vm OVe¡z L¡lZ, H
OVe¡ OV−a f¡−l k¢c fËbj V−pJ −p¡S¡ ¢cL J−W, Bh¡l
¢àa£u V−pJ −p¡S¡ ¢cL J−Wz a¡q−m fËbj V−p −p¡S¡ ¢cL JW¡
HL¢V plm OVe¡, Bh¡l ¢àa£u V−p −p¡S¡ ¢cL JW¡ Bl
HL¢V plm OVe¡z H c¤¢V OVe¡ OV−m Bjl¡ f¡C c¤h¡lC −p¡S¡
¢cL JW¡ e¡jL HL¢V S¢Vm OVe¡z
BlJ HL¢V cªø¡¿¹ x
HL¢V ¢eM¤ya m¤−X¡l c¡e ¢c−m 1 Abh¡ 2 JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
L£ ?
H−r−œ −L¡−e¡ c¡−e 1-JW¡ HL¢V plm OVe¡, 2-JW¡ Bl
HL¢V plm OVe¡z a¡C 1 Abh¡ 2-JW¡ HL¢V S¢Vm OVe¡z
Bjl¡ pl¡p¢l p¡lZ£l à¡l¡ S¢Vm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu
Ll−a f¡¢lz S¢Vm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑ−ul pju −k
¢hou¢V−a Bj¡−cl phÑ¡¢dL …l¦aÆ ¢c−a q−h a¡ qm
phÑfËbj −j¡V ¢hLÒf ¢eZÑu Ll¡z Bl a¡ k¢c Bjl¡ Ll−a
f¡¢l a¡q−m h¡¢L L¡S M¤hC pqSz
Bjl¡ f§−hÑ −c−M¢R j§m p§œ x
OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ = f/t , Bh¡l e¡-OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ = u/t
h¡ 1 –f/t
fË−u¡N L−l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu Ll¡ k¡−hz Bjl¡ ¢e−jÀl L−uL¢V
Ec¡ql−Zl p¡q¡−kÉ ¢hou¢V−L pq−S h¤−T −ehz
j¤â¡ ¢e−rf J −j¡V ¢hLÒf h¡ t
HL¢V j¤â¡l c¤¢V ¢cL x −p¡S¡ h¡ H , E−ÒV¡ h¡ T z L¡−SC
−L¡−e¡ j¤â¡ 1-h¡l Vp Ll−m −j¡V 2-¢V(21) ¢hLÒf pñh H, T z
Bh¡l −L¡−e¡ j¤â¡ c¤h¡l Vp Ll−m 4¢V(22) ¢hLÒf OVe¡-pw−k¡N
(Combination) pñhz 3-h¡l Vp Ll−m t = 8 (23)z
¢hou…¢m−L p¡lZ£l BL¡−l ¢e−jÀ −mM¡ qm x
1 2 3
1-h¡l Vp 1j h¡−l 2u h¡−l 1j h¡−l 2u h¡−l 3u h¡−l
h¡ h¡ h¡ h¡ h¡
1j j¤â¡u 2u j¤â¡u 1j j¤â¡u 2u j¤â¡u 3u j¤â¡u

H H H H H H
T H T H H T
T H H T H
T T H T T
T H H
T H T
T T H
T T T
¢àa£u J a«a£u p¡lZ£l ¢n−l¡−c−n "1j h¡−l h¡ 1j j¤â¡u', "2u h¡−l
h¡ 2u j¤â¡u' Hph −mM¡l a¡vfkÑ qm HC −k - 1¢V j¤â¡ 2 h¡l Vp
Ll¡ Bl 2¢V j¤â¡ 1 h¡l L−l Vp Ll¡ - c¤¢V −r−œC HL lLj OVe¡-
pw−k¡N pñhflz ¢WL HLCi¡−h 1¢V j¤â¡ 3 h¡l Vp Ll¡ Bl 3¢V j¤â¡
1 h¡l L−l Vp Ll¡ - c¤¢V −r−œC HL lLj OVe¡-pw−k¡N pñhflz
HLCi¡−h AeÉ¡eÉ OVe¡l −r−œ HLC k¤¢š² fË−k¡SÉz
Hh¡l Bp¡ k¡LÚ Ef−l¡š² p¡lZ£l hÉ¡MÉ¡uz p¡l¢Z…¢ml ¢h¢iæ
p¡¢l−a pñhfl ¢hLÒf…¢m E−õM Ll¡ q−u−Rz a¡l AbÑ qm HlLj
fË−aÉL p¡lZ£l p¡¢l…¢ml j−dÉ ""Abh¡'' −mM¡ B−R d−l ¢e−a q−hz
−kje Eš² p¡lZ£l ¢àa£u p¡lZ£−a hm¡ q−u−R, −L¡e j¤â¡ 2 h¡l Vp
Ll−m HlLj OVe¡-pw−k¡N q−a f¡−l x 2 h¡lC −p¡S¡ (HH), Abh¡
1j h¡l −p¡S¡ 2u h¡l E−ÒV¡ (HT), Abh¡ 1j h¡l E−ÒV¡ 2u h¡l
−p¡S¡ (TH), Abh¡ 2 h¡lC E−ÒV¡ (TT) z
Bh¡l Hl©f p¡lZ£l −L¡e p¡¢l−a f¡n¡f¡¢n AbÑ¡v X¡C−e h¡−j −k
Arl…¢m b¡−L, a¡−cl fË−aÉL¢Vl j−dÉ ""Hhw'' −mM¡ B−R h−m
d−l ¢e−a q−hz −kje a«a£u p¡lZ£l 1j p¡¢l−a −k pw−k¡−Nl Lb¡
hm¡ q−u−R a¡ qm x H Hhw H Hhw H AbÑ¡v 1j h¡l (h¡ 1j
j¤â¡u) H, Hhw 2u h¡l ( h¡ 2u j¤â¡u) H, 3u h¡l (h¡ 3u j¤â¡u)
H EW−a f¡−lz
HlLj p¡lZ£ k¢c Bj¡−cl p¡j−e b¡−L a¡q−m A¢a pq−S
Bjl¡ j¤â¡ Vp pwœ²¡¿¹ S¢Vm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu Ll−a f¡¢lz
1) HL¢V ¢eM¤ya j¤â¡ 2 h¡l Vp Ll−m ( h¡ 2¢V j¤â¡ 1 h¡l
L−l) Vp Ll−m - flfl 2 h¡l (h¡ 2¢V j¤â¡−aC) −p¡S¡
¢cL (H) JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
HC lLj fË−nÀl Eš−l 2u p¡lZ£ −cM−mC −h¡T¡ k¡u
HM¡−e t=4, f=1 p¤¤al¡w 2 h¡lC −p¡S¡ ¢cL (H) JW¡l
(HH f¡Ju¡l ) pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/4z (hm¡ h¡ýmÉ I p¡lZ£l HH,
Ae¤L¨m ¢hLÒf B−R j¡œ 1 h¡l)z
2) HL¢V ¢eM¤ya j¤â¡ 2 h¡l Vp Ll−m ( h¡ 2¢V j¤â¡ 1 h¡l
L−l) Vp Ll−m - flfl 2 h¡l (h¡ 2¢V j¤â¡−aC) E−ÒV¡
¢cL (T) JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Eš−l hm¡ k¡u, H−r−œ t = 4 , f = 1 z TT JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/4 (k¡ p¡lZ£l phÑ−no p¡¢l −cM−mC −h¡T¡ k¡−h)z
3) HL¢V ¢eM¤ya j¤â¡ 2 h¡l Vp Ll−m ( h¡ 2¢V j¤â¡ 1 h¡l
L−l) Vp Ll−m - HLh¡l T HLh¡l H JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La
?
Eš−l hm¡ k¡u HLh¡l T HLh¡l H B−R c¤¢V ¢hL−Òf, HT
Bl TH-H−az AbÑ¡v f = 2, a¡C H−r−œ pñ¡hÉa¡ = 2/4
h¡ 1/2 z
4) HL¢V ¢eM¤ya j¤â¡ 2 h¡l Vp Ll−m ( h¡ 2¢V j¤â¡ 1 h¡l
L−l) Vp Ll−m ........ only one, −Lhm HL¢V H JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
 HC pñ¡hÉa¡l Eš−l Bj¡−cl −Lhm HL¢V Lb¡l AbÑ
fËb−j h¤−T ¢e−a q−hz −Lhm HL¢V H hm−a AeÉh¡l T
EW−a f¡−lz a¡C 1 h¡l H JW¡l −rœ qm x (i) HT h¡
(ii) TH z AbÑ¡v f = 2 z p¤¤al¡w H−r−œ pñ¡hÉa¡ = 2/4
h¡ 1/2 z
5) HL¢V ¢eM¤ya j¤â¡ 2 h¡l Vp Ll−m ( h¡ 2¢V j¤â¡ 1
h¡l L−l) Vp Ll−m ........ at least one, A¿¹a HL¢V (h¡
A¿¹a 1 h¡l) H JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Eš−l hm¡ k¡u k¡ ¢àa£u p¡lZ£ −cM−m −h¡T¡ k¡−h Ae¤L¨m
¢hLÒf qm (i) HH, (ii) HT Bl (iii) TH z a¡l AbÑ
H−r−œ f =3, t = 4 z p¤¤al¡w 1 h¡l H JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
3/4 z
 AhnÉ H fË−nÀl Ešl Bjl¡ AeÉ HLi¡−hJ −f−a f¡¢lz
A¿¹a HLh¡l H-JW¡ H OVe¡ e¡-OV−a f¡−l k¢c −L¡−e¡
h¡lC H e¡ J−Wz L¡−SC fËb−j −L¡−e¡ h¡lC H e¡-JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ NZe¡ L−l ¢e−u, −pC pñ¡hÉa¡−L 1 −b−L h¡c ¢c−m
A¿¹a 1 h¡l H-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ f¡Ju¡ k¡−hz HMe f¨−hÑ¡š²
p¡lZ£ −b−L Bjl¡ −c−M ¢e−a f¡¢l ¢WL −L¡eÚ AhÙÛ¡u H-Hl
H−Lh¡−lC e¡-JW¡l OVe¡¢V OV−a f¡−l ? ¢àa£u p¡lZ£l Qa¥bÑ
p¡¢l −cM−mC Bjl¡ −cM−a f¡h TT- OVe¡l pw−k¡N O−V−Rz
Hl AbÑ HLh¡lJ H e¡-JW¡l Ae¤L¨m ¢hLÒf h¡ f = 1, t =
4 a¡q−m HLh¡lJ H e¡-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/4 z p¤¤al¡w
A¿¹a 1 h¡l H-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1 - 1/4 = 3/4 z
6) HL¢V ¢eM¤ya j¤â¡ 3 h¡l Vp Ll−m ( h¡ 3¢V j¤â¡ HLh¡l
L−l Vp Ll−m) flfl ¢aeh¡l ( h¡ ¢ae j¤â¡−aC ) H JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl qm x f−¨ hÑ¡š² p¡lZ£ −cM−m Bjl¡ h¤T−a f¡lh,
HM¡−e t = 8, f = 1 z p¤¤al¡w ¢ae h¡lC H-JW¡l (HHH
f¡Ju¡l) pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/8 z mrZ£u ¢hou qm Eš² p¡lZ£−a
HHH-Hl pw−k¡N B−R j¡œ HLh¡l)z
7) HL¢V ¢eM¤ya j¤â¡ 3 h¡l Vp Ll−m ( h¡ 3¢V j¤â¡ HLh¡l
L−l Vp Ll−m) flfl ¢aeh¡l ( h¡ ¢ae j¤â¡−aC ) T JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Eš−l hm¡ k¡u t = 8, f = 1 z p¤¤al¡w TTT JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/8z (Eš² p¡lZ£l phÑ−no p¡¢l −cM−m −h¡T¡ k¡−h)z
8) HL¢V ¢eM¤ya j¤â¡ 3 h¡l Vp Ll−m ( h¡ 3¢V j¤â¡ HLh¡l L−l
Vp Ll−m) flfl ¢aeh¡l ( h¡ ¢ae j¤â¡−aC ) c¤h¡l T J HLh¡l
H JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl qm c¤h¡l T HLh¡l H −f−a f¡¢l k¢c ¢e−jÀ¡š²
pw−k¡N…¢ml −L¡−e¡¢V O−V: HTT(4bÑ p¡¢l), THT(6ù p¡¢l), h¡
TTH (7j p¡¢l)z Hl AbÑ HM¡−e f = 3, t = 8 z a¡C H−r−œ
pñ¡hÉa¡ 3/8 z
9) HL¢V ¢eM¤ya j¤â¡ 3 h¡l Vp Ll−m ( h¡ 3¢V j¤â¡ HLh¡l L−l
Vp Ll−m) flfl ¢aeh¡l ( h¡ ¢ae j¤â¡−aC ) ........ only one,
−Lhm HL¢V T (h¡ −Lhm HLh¡l T )JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Eš−l hm¡ k¡u −Lhm HLh¡l T (AeÉ c¤h¡l H) EW−a f¡−l
k¢c ¢e−jÀ¡š² pw−k¡N…¢ml −L¡−e¡ HL¢V O−V x (i) HHT(2u p¡¢l),
(ii) HTH (3u p¡¢l), h¡ (iii) THH (5j p¡¢l) AbÑ¡v H−r−œ
f = 3, t = 8 z p¤¤al¡w HM¡−e pñ¡hÉa¡ 3/8 z
10) HL¢V ¢eM¤ya j¤â¡ 3 h¡l Vp Ll−m ( h¡ 3¢V j¤â¡
HLh¡l L−l Vp Ll−m) flfl ¢aeh¡l ( h¡ ¢ae j¤â¡−aC )
....... at least one, A¿¹a HL¢V T JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Eš−l hm−a f¡¢l k¡ a«a£u p¡lZ£ −cM−m −h¡T¡ k¡−h )
A¿¹a HL¢V h¡ A¿¹a HLh¡l T −f−a f¡¢l k¢c ¢e−jÀ¡š²
pw−k¡N…¢ml −L¡e HL¢V O−V x HHT, HTH, HTT, THH,
THT, TTH, TTT (Eš² p¡lZ£l fËbj p¡¢l h¡c ¢c−u h¡¢L
ph p¡¢ll ¢hLÒf)z a¡l AbÑ HM¡−e f = 7, t = 8 z p¤¤al¡w
A¿¹a HL¢V T f¡Ju¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 7/8 z
Bh¡l Ešl¢V Bjl¡ Hi¡−hJ −f−a f¡la¡jz −L¡−e¡
T e¡-JW¡l AbÑ¡v ph H-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/8 z L¡−S L¡−SC
A¿¹a HL¢V T JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ qm 1 - 1/8 = 7/8 z
¢L HMe S¡e−a CµR¡ Ll−R j¤â¡l j¡œ c¤¢V ¢cL a¡C HL h¡
HL¡¢dL j¤â¡l Vp pwœ²¡¿¹ pñ¡hÉa¡ p¡lZ£l p¡q¡−kÉ e¡qu
A¢a pq−S ¢eZÑu Ll¡ k¡u, ¢L¿¹¥ m¤−X¡l Oy¥¢V ¢Lwh¡ a¡−pl
h¡¢™−ml −r−œ p¡lZ£l p¡q¡−kÉ pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu ¢Li¡−h pñh
? e¡ hå¥l¡ Bf¡acª¢ø−a ¢hou¢V−L kaV¡ L¢We j−e q−µR,
a¡ ¢L¿¹¥ aaV¡ L¢We euz Bl a¡ −k eu a¡ Bjl¡ ¢e−jÀl
B−m¡Qe¡u −cM−a f¡hz HMe m¤−X¡l Oy¥¢Vl c¡e pwœ²¡¿¹
p¡lZ£ Bjl¡ fl£r¡ L−l −cMhz
Bjl¡ S¡¢e, HL¢V m¤−X¡l Oy¥¢Vl Ru¢V ¢cLz L¡−SC HL¢V
¢eMy¥a Oy¥¢V ¢e−rf Ll−m (HLh¡l c¡e ¢c−m) −j¡V 6¢V
¢hLÒf (61) ¢hLÒf pñhfl x 1-JW¡, 2-JW¡, 3-JW¡, 4-
JW¡, 5-JW¡ h¡ 6-JW¡z HL¢V Oy¥¢V 2 h¡l ¢e−rf Ll−m (h¡
2¢V Oy¥¢V HLh¡l L−l ¢e−rf Ll−m) 36¢V (62) ¢hLÒf
OVe¡-pw−k¡N pñhflz HL¢V Oy¥¢V 3 h¡l ¢e−rf Ll−m (h¡
¢ae¢V Oy¥¢V HLh¡l L−l ¢e−rf Ll−m) 216¢V (63) ¢hLÒf
OVe¡l pw−k¡N pñhflz
HL¢V Oy¥¢V 2 h¡l h¡ 2¢V Oy¥¢V HLh¡l L−l ¢e−rf
Ll−m −k ph ¢hLÒf OVe¡l pw−k¡N pñhfl, a¡ e£−Ql
p¡lZ£l p¡q¡−kÉ −cM¡−e¡ qm x
1j -2u 1j -2u 1j - 2u 1j -2u 1j - 2u 1j - 2u

1 - 1 2 - 1 3 - 1 4 - 1 5 - 1 6 - 1
1 - 2 2 - 2 3 - 2 4 - 2 5 - 2 6 - 2
1 - 3 2 - 3 3 - 3 4 - 3 5 - 3 6 - 3
1 - 4 2 - 4 3 - 4 4 - 4 5 - 4 6 - 4
1 - 5 2 - 5 3 - 5 4 - 5 5 - 5 6 - 5
1 - 6 2 - 6 3 - 6 4 - 6 5 - 6 6 - 6

* fË−aÉL n£oÑÙ¹−ñ "1j' , "2u'-Hl f−l ""h¡−l'' h¡ ""Oy¥¢V''−a fs−a q−hz

cªø¡¿¹ x
1) HL¢V ¢eMy¥a Oy¥¢V 2 h¡l (h¡ 2¢V Oy¥¢V 1 h¡l L−l) ¢e−rf
Ll−m flfl 2 h¡l (h¡ c¤¢V Oy¥¢V−a HLh¡l L−l) 6 JW¡l AbÑ¡v
6 - 6 f¡Ju¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x HM¡−e t = 36, f = 1 (p¡lZ£¢V −cM−m Bjl¡ h¤T−a f¡lh
6-6 HC OVe¡-pw−k¡N B−R j¡œ 1 h¡l)z a¡C H−r−œ pñ¡hÉa¡
1/36 z
2) HL¢V ¢eMy¥a Oy¥¢V 2 h¡l (h¡ 2¢V Oy¥¢V 1 h¡l L−l) ¢e−rf
Ll−m flfl 2 h¡l (h¡ c¤¢V Oy¥¢V−a HLh¡l L−l) , A¿¹a HLh¡l
1-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x (p¡lZ£¢V mrÉ Ll−m Bjl¡ −cM−a f¡h) t = 36, f = 11
z p¤¤al¡w A¿¹a 1 h¡l 1 JW¡l (1-Hl p−‰ 2, 3, 4 CaÉ¡¢cJ
b¡L−a f¡−l) pñ¡haÉ¡ qm 11/36 z
HMe Bjl¡ −k pjpÉ¡…¢ml pj¡d¡e Llh a¡ HLV¥ ¢iæ dl−el x
−kje c¤¢V Oy¥¢V−a −k c¤¢V pwMÉ¡ J−W a¡−cl −k¡N Ll−m −k pwMÉ¡
f¡Ju¡ k¡u, −p lLj −L¡e ¢e¢cÑø pwMÉ¡ f¡Ju¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
−kje 12 h¡ 7 h¡ 8 CaÉ¡¢c f¡Ju¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
3) HL¢V ¢eMy¥a Oy¥¢V 2 h¡l (h¡ 2¢V Oy¥¢V 1 h¡l L−l) ¢e−rf Ll−m
flfl 2 h¡l (h¡ c¤¢V Oy¥¢V−a HLh¡l L−l) 12 JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La
?
Ešl x HM¡−e t = 36, ¢L¿¹¥ f = 1 z L¡lZ, −Lhm 6-6 EW−mC
Bjl¡ 12 −f−a f¡¢lz Bl I p¡lZ£ mrÉ Ll−mC Bjl¡ −cM−a
f¡h H−Lh¡−l phÑ−no p¡¢l−a I OVe¡-pw−k¡N B−Rz a¡C HM¡−e
pñ¡hÉa¡ qm 1/36 z
4) HL¢V ¢eMy¥a Oy¥¢V 2 h¡ (h¡ 2¢V Oy¥¢V 1 h¡l L−l) ¢e−rf Ll−m
flfl 2 h¡l (h¡ c¤¢V Oy¥¢V−a HLh¡l L−l) 7 JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La
?
Ešl x Eš² p¡lZ£¢V mrÉ Ll−m Bjl¡ −cM−a f¡h, −kl©f
pw−k¡N…¢m−a 7 f¡Ju¡ k¡u a¡ qm x −kje - 1-6, 2-5, 3-4,
4-3, 5-2, 6-1 z a¡l AbÑ H−r−œ t = 36 q−mJ f = 6 ,
p¤a
¤ l¡w HM¡−e pñ¡hÉa¡ qm 6/36 h¡ 1/6 z
5) HL¢V ¢eMy¥a Oy¥¢V 2 h¡ (h¡ 2¢V Oy¥¢V 1 h¡l L−l) ¢e−rf Ll−m
flfl 2 h¡l (h¡ c¤¢V Oy¥¢V−a HLh¡l L−l) 9 JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La
?
Ešl x p¡lZ£ −b−L 9 −f−a f¡¢l HCi¡−h x 3-6, 4-5, 5-4, 6-
3 z a¡l AbÑ HM¡−e f = 4, t = 36 z a¡C pñ¡hÉa¡ qm 4/36
h¡ 1/9 z
plm J üaüa¿»
¿» OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ k¤š² L−l S¢Vm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu x
Bjl¡ C¢af§−hÑ fË¡p¢‰L p¡lZ£ −b−L L£i¡−h S¢Vm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
¢eZÑu Ll−a qu a¡ −c−M¢Rz HMe Bjl¡ −cMh plm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ k¤š²
L−l AbÑ¡v −k¡N h¡ …Z L−l S¢Vm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ L£i¡−h ¢eZÑu Ll−a
quz HC fÜ¢a h¤T−a q−m fËb−jC Bj¡−cl L−uL¢V pw−rfL fËa£L−L
h¤−T ¢e−a q−h k¡l a¡¢mL¡ ¢e−jÀ −cJu¡ qm x
pw−rfL fËa£L −L¡eÚ OVe¡l pw−rfL fËa£L
P (a) a OVe¡ OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
P(b) b OVe¡ OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
P(a) a OVe¡ e¡-OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
P (a and b) a Hhw b OVe¡ OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
P (a or b) a or b OVe¡ OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
cªø¡¿¹ x
dl¡k¡LÚ a qm HL¢V Vp Ll¡ j¤â¡l −p¡S¡ ¢cL-JW¡z a¡q−m P(a) = 1/2z H
Lb¡¢V Bjl¡ Hi¡−hJ hm−a f¡¢l x P(H) = 1/2 h¡ Hi¡−h P (−p¡S¡ JW¡ ) = 1/2 z
dl¡k¡LÚ b qm m¤−X¡l c¡−e 6-JW¡z a¡q−m P(b) = 1/6z −plLj P (¢h−S¡s pwMÉ¡) =
1/2 , P (−S¡s pwMÉ¡) = 1 - 1/2 = 1/2 z P (6-JW¡ Hhw 6-JW¡) = 1/36 z
c¤ lLj OVe
OVe¡¡ pw−k¡N
HC −k plm J üa¿» OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ k¤š² L−l S¢Vm OVe¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu a¡ c¤ lLj S¢Vm OVe¡ pw−k¡−N q−a f¡−lz (1)
pw−k±¢NL OVe¡ J (2) °hL¢ÒfL OVe¡z −k S¢Vm OVe¡ hZÑe¡ Ll−a
Bjl¡ ""L Hhw M'' ("a and b'') - Hl BL¡l hÉhq¡l L¢l, a¡−L
h−m pw−k±¢NL OVe¡z Bl −k S¢Vm OVe¡ hZÑe¡ ¢c−a Bjl¡ ""L Abh¡
M'' ("a or b'') - Hl BL¡l hÉhq¡l L¢l, a¡−L h−m °hL¢ÒfL OVe¡z
kb¡ 2 h¡l m¤−X¡l c¡e ¢c−m 2 h¡lC 6- JW¡, AbÑ¡v "fËbjh¡−l 6-JW¡,
Hhw ¢àa£uh¡−lJ 6-JW¡' pw−k±¢NL OVe¡z Bh¡l −L¡−e¡ h¡−l 6-JW¡l
AbÑ - "fËbjh¡−l 6-JW¡ Abh¡ ¢àa£uh¡−l 6-JW¡' qm °hL¢ÒfL OVe¡z
a¡C HMe Bjl¡ HC S¡a£u fË−nÀl Ešl −My¡S¡l −Qø¡ Llh x (1) L
Hhw M OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ L£ ? (2) L Abh¡ M OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ L£ ? HC
S¡a£u fË−nÀl Ešl f¡Ju¡ k¡−h c¤¢V p§−œl j¡dÉ−jz Bjl¡ p§œ c¤¢V ¢e−jÀ
B−m¡Qe¡ Llm¡jz
pw−k±
pw−k±¢NL OVe¡
OVe¡ L Hhw M OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ …−Zl
…−Zl pœ§
(Multiplication Theorem ) x
HMe Bjl¡ −k OVe¡¢V B−m¡Qe¡ Ll−a k¡¢µR a¡
fËk¤š² q−h k¢c pw−k±¢NL OVe¡l A‰-OVe¡…¢m üa¿» quz
fËb−jC Bj¡−cl ""üa¿»'' n−ël AbÑ S¡e−a q−hz k¢c
Hje qu −k L-OV¡ M-OV¡−L, h¡ M-OV¡ L-OV¡−L
−L¡−e¡i¡−h fËi¡¢ha L−l e¡, a¡q−m hm¡ qu L , M - Hl¡
flØfl üa¿» OVe¡z kb¡ fËbj Oy¥¢V−a 1-JW¡ ¢àa£u Oy¥¢V−a
L£ EW−h AbÑ¡v 2, e¡¢L 3, e¡¢L 4, e¡¢L 5, e¡¢L 6 a¡
fËi¡¢ha L−l e¡z p¤¤al¡w 1-JW¡, 2-JW¡, 3-JW¡ CaÉ¡¢c
üa¿» OVe¡z
Hh¡l dl¡k¡LÚ a HL¢V üa¿» OVe¡, b Bl HL¢V üa¿» OVe¡; Hhw Bjl¡
a and b-Hl pñ¡hÉa¡ h¡ P (a and b) , ¢eZÑu Ll−a Q¡Cz a¡q−m ¢e−jÀ¡š²
p§œ¢V fË−u¡N Ll−a q−hz
P (a and b) = P(a) x P(b)
AbÑ¡v a-Hl pñ¡hÉa¡ J b-Hl pñ¡hÉa¡ …Z Ll−mC a and b-Hl
pñ¡hÉa¡ f¡Ju¡ k¡−hz HC p§œ−L h−m …−Zl p§œz [HLCi¡−h P(a and b
and c) = P(a)xP(b)xP(c)z Ae¤l©fi¡−h, P(a and b and c and d) =
P(a)xP(b)xP(c)xP(d) CaÉ¡¢cl j§mÉ ¢eZÑu Ll−a q−h ]z
−kje -
1) HL¢V ¢eMy¥a j¤â¡ 2 h¡l Vp Ll−m 2 h¡lC −p¡S¡ ¢cL (H) JW¡l (fËbj
h¡l H Hhw ¢àa£uh¡lJ H-JW¡l, AbÑ¡v HH-JW¡l) pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x fËbjh¡−l H-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/2, ¢àa£uh¡−l 1/2 z p¤¤al¡w
c¤h¡l H-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/2 x 1/2 h¡ 1/4 z
2) HL¢V ¢eMy¥a Oy¥¢V ¢e−u c¤h¡l m¤−X¡l c¡e ¢c−m c¤h¡lC 3 (fËbjh¡l 3 Hhw ¢àa£uh¡l
3) JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x fË−aÉLh¡l 3 JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/6 z p¤¤al¡w c¤h¡l 3 JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
1/6 x 1/6 = 1/36 z
3) HL¢V ¢eMy¥a h¡¢™−ml i¡m L−l iy¡S¡ a¡p −b−L HLM¡e¡ L−l a¡p −V−e ¢e−u −cM¡
qu L£ EWm ? a¡lfl a¡pM¡e¡ Bh¡l h¡¢™−m ¢j¢n−u −cJu¡ quz HlLj L−l flfl 3
h¡l a¡p −V−e ¢e−m 3 h¡lC qlae JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x fË−aÉLh¡l qlae JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 13/52 h¡ 1/4 z p¤¤al¡w 3 h¡lC
qlae JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/4 x 1/4 x 1/4 h¡ 1/64 z
4) HL¢V ¢eMy¥a j¤â¡ 10 h¡l Vp Ll−m 10 h¡lC −p¡S¡¢cL (H) JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x fË−aÉLh¡l H JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/2 z p¤¤al¡w 10 h¡lC H JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ qm (1/2)10 h¡ 1/1024 z
5) c¤h¡l m¤−X¡l c¡e ¢c−m c¤h¡lC 6 e¡-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x fË−aÉL h¡lC 6 e¡-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 5/6 z p¤¤al¡w c¤h¡lC 6 e¡-JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ qm 5/6 x 5/6 = 25/36 z
°hL¢
hL¢ÒfL OVe¡
OVe¡ L Abh¡
Abh¡ M OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ x
−k¡−Nl pœ§ (Addition Theorem)
Hh¡l Bjl¡ −k p§œ¢V ¢nMh a¡ qm - k¢c Hje qu
−k, S¢Vm (HM¡−e °hL¢ÒfL OVe¡ h¤T−a q−h)OVe¡l A‰-
OVe¡…¢m ¢hpwh¡c£ (exclusive) ¢hLÒfz ""¢hpwh¡c£
¢hLÒf'' hm−a k¢c Hje qu −k L Bl M HLp−‰ OV−a
f¡−l e¡, aMe hm¡ qu L Bl M ¢hpwh¡c£ ¢hLÒfz −kje
HL¢V j¤â¡ Vp Ll−m H, T HLp−‰ EW−a f¡−l e¡; a¡C
H-JW¡, T-JW¡ ¢hpwh¡c£ ¢hLÒfz HLCi¡−h HL¢V m¤−X¡l
Oy¥¢V−a 5, 6 H−cl c¤¢VC HLp−‰ EW−a f¡−l e¡; a¡C 5-
JW¡, Bl 6-JW¡ ¢hpwh¡c£ ¢hLÒfz
dl¡ k¡LÚ HL¢V OVe¡, Bl HL¢V OVe¡; Hhw Bjl¡ a Abh¡ b-
Hl pñ¡hÉa¡, h¡ P(a or b) ¢eZÑu Ll−a Q¡Cz a¡q−m Bjl¡
¢e−jÀl p§œ¢V fË−u¡N Llhz
P (a or b) = P(a) + P(b)
[HLCi¡−h P (a or b or c) = P(a) + P(b) + P(c) ]
AbÑ¡v a-Hl pñ¡hÉa¡ J b-Hl pñ¡hÉa¡ −k¡N Ll−m a or b-Hl
pñ¡hÉa¡ f¡Ju¡ k¡−hz HC p§œ−L h−m −k¡−Nl p§œz
−kje,
1) HL¢V ¢eMy¥a j¤â¡ Vp Ll−m H Abh¡ T JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x P(H) =1/2, P(T) = 1/2, p¤¤al¡w H−r−œ pñ¡hÉa¡
1/2 + 1/2 h¡ 1 z
2) HL¢V ¢eMy¥a m¤−X¡l Oy¥¢V−a 3 Abh¡ 4 JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
La ?
Ešl x P (3-JW¡) = 1/6, (4-JW¡) = 1/6 z p¤¤al¡w
3 Abh¡ 4 JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/6 + 1/6 = 2/6 h¡ 1/3 z
3) HL¢V a¡−pl ¢eMy¥a h¡¢™m −b−L HLM¡e¡ a¡p −V−e
¢e−m a¡ qlae, l¦Cae h¡ Cú¡he qJu¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x P (qlae) = 13/52, P (l¦Cae) =
13/52, P (Cú¡he) = 13/52; p¤¤al¡w H−r−œ pñ¡hÉa¡
qm x 13/52 + 13/52 + 13/52 = 39/52 h¡ 3/4 z
 A¢hpwh¡c£
hpwh¡c£ °hL¢
hL¢ÒfL OVe¡
OVe¡ ( ) ....... A¿¹a HL¢
HL¢V ( HLh¡l)
HLh¡l)....... −k¡−Nl pœ§
fË−u¡N L−l x
fËb−j Bj¡−cl A¢hpwh¡c£ ¢hLÒf hm−a ¢L −h¡T¡u a¡ −S−e ¢e−a
q−hz k¢c Hje qu −k L Bl M HLp−‰ OV−a −L¡−e¡ Ap¤¤¢hd¡ qu e¡ (−kje
HL¢V ¢eMy¥a j¤â¡ c¤h¡l Vp Ll−m A¿¹a HLh¡l H JW¡l Abh¡ ¢àa£uh¡−l H
JW¡l Abh¡ c¤h¡lC H JW¡l −r−œ −L¡−e¡ pjpÉ¡ qu e¡) aMe −k ¢hL−Òfl
Lb¡ hm¡ qu a¡ A¢hpwh¡c£ ¢hLÒfz H−r−œ k¢c Bjl¡ −k¡−Nl p§œ fË−u¡N
Lla¡j a¡q−m ¢e¢ÕQa i¥m qaz −kje fËbjh¡l H JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/2,
¢àa£uh¡l H JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ 1/2 z a¡q−m H−r−œ hm−a qa pñ¡hÉa¡ =
1/2 + 1/2 = 1 z ¢L¿¹¥ c¤h¡l Vp Ll−m A¿¹a HLh¡l H EW−h, H¢V
p¤¤¢e¢ÕQa euz L¡lZ, c¤h¡lC T EW−a f¡−lz
fË¡p¢‰L p¡lZ£l p¡q¡−kÉ −k HS¡a£u fË−nÀl Ešl pq−SC −f−a f¡¢l
a¡ Bjl¡ f§−hÑ −c−M ¢e−u¢Rz HMe BlJ c¤Ci¡−h HC S¡a£u fË−nÀl Ešl
Bjl¡ −f−a f¡¢lz ¢e−jÀ HC fÜ¢a…¢m B−m¡Qe¡ Ll¡ qmz
1) fËbja x pñhfl OVe¡-pw−k¡N…¢m−L ¢hpwh¡c£ ¢hL−Òf l©f¡¿¹¢la L−l
¢e−u −k¡−Nl p§œ fË−u¡N L−l pñ¡hÉa¡ EÜ¡l Ll−a f¡¢lz Eš² −r−œ Bjl¡
f¡h HC ¢hpwh¡c£ ¢hLÒf…¢m x HH, HT, TH z H…¢m ¢hpwh¡c£ ¢hLÒfz
p¤¤al¡w H−r−œ −k¡−Nl p§œ¢V fË−u¡N Ll¡ k¡−hz HH, HT fËi«¢a pw−k±¢NL
OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ −f−a f¡¢l …−Zl p§œ fË−u¡N L−lz H p§œ fË−u¡N L−l
Bjl¡ f¡C x
P (H and H) = 1/2 x 1/2 h¡ 1/4 P (H and T) =1/2 x 1/2
h¡ 1/4 z
P (T and H) =1/2 x 1/2 h¡ 1/4 z
p¤¤al¡w HH Abh¡ HT Abh¡ TH JW¡l, h¡ A¿¹a HLh¡l H JW¡l, pñ¡hÉa¡
qm 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/4 h¡ 3/4 z
2) ¢àa£ua x fËb−j A¿¹a HLh¡lJ H-e¡ JW¡l AbÑ H H−Lh¡−lC e¡ JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu L−l ¢e−u a¡ 1 −b−L h¡c ¢c−u A¿¹a 1 h¡l H JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ −f−a f¡¢l k¡ Bjl¡ f§−hÑ B−m¡Qe¡ L−l¢Rz
HMe B¿¹a HLh¡l H JW¡ H OVe¡ e¡ OV−a f¡−l ( AbÑ¡v H
H−Lh¡−lC e¡ EW−a f¡¢l) k¢c 2 h¡lC T E−W, AbÑ¡v TT-H pw−k¡N¢V O−Vz
HMe TT-Hl pñ¡hÉa¡ qm 1/2 x 1/2 h¡ 1/4 z p¤¤al¡w TT e¡-JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ qm, h¡ A¿¹a HLh¡l H JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ qm, 1 - 1/4 h¡ 3/4 z
HMe Bjl¡ BlJ c¤¢V cªø¡−¿¹l p¡q¡−kÉ ¢hou¢V−L BlJ pqS
Ae¤d¡he−k¡NÉ L−l ¢e−a f¡¢lz
c¤¢V ¢eMy¥a Oy¥¢V ¢e−rf Ll−m A¿¹a HL¢V−a 5 JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x p¡lZ£l p¡q¡−kÉ HS¡a£u fË−nÀl Ešl pq−S −f−a f¡¢l a¡
Bjl¡ C¢af§−hÑ −c−M ¢e−u¢Rz HR¡s¡J BlJ c¤i¡−h HC pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu
Ll−a f¡¢lz
1) H−rœ −j¡V ¢ae¢V ¢hpwh¡c£ ¢hLÒf pñhfl x (L) fËbj Oy¥¢V−a 5 JW¡,
¢àa£u Oy¥¢V−a 5 e¡ JW¡, (M) fËbj Oy¥¢V−a 5 e¡ JW¡, ¢àa£u Oy¥¢V−a 5 JW¡
(N) c¤¢V Oy¥¢V−aC 5 JW¡ z Bjl¡ 5 e¡ JW¡l pw−rfL ¢q−p−h HM¡−e x
¢mMh z a¡q−m ¢ae¢V ¢hpwh¡c£ ¢hLÒf q−h ¢ejÀl©f x
5 JW¡ Hhw 5 e¡ JW¡, 5 e¡ JW¡ Hhw 5 JW¡, 5 JW¡ Hhw 5 JW¡
HMe P(5-JW¡) = 1/6, P(5-e¡-JW¡) = 5/6 z
p¤¤al¡w P(5 JW¡ Hhw 5 e¡ JW¡) = 1/6 x 5/6 = 5/36
P(5 e¡ JW¡ Hhw 5 JW¡) = 5/6 x 1/6 = 5/36
(5 JW¡ Hhw 5 JW¡) = 1/6 x 1/6 = 1/36
p¤¤al¡w P(5 JW¡ Hhw 5 e¡ JW¡, Abh¡ 5 e¡ JW¡ Hhw 5 JW¡, Abh¡ 5
JW¡ Hhw 5 JW¡) = 5/36 + 5/36 + 1/36 = 11/36
(2) A¿¹a HL¢V−a 5-JW¡ - OVe¡ e¡-OV−a f¡−l k¢c 5 e¡ JW¡ Hhw 5 e¡
JW¡ J−Wz HMe P(5 e¡ JW¡ Hhw 5 e¡ JW¡) = 5/6 x 5/6 h¡ 25/36 z
1 −b−L H pñ¡hÉa¡ h¡c ¢c−u f¡C 1 - 25/36 h¡ 11/36 z H¢V A¿¹a
HL¢V−a 5-JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡z
Bl HL¢V Ec¡qlZ x
dl¡k¡LÚ HL¢V f¡−œ 2¢V p¡c¡ hm J 3¢V L¡−m¡ hm B−Rz
Afl HL¢V f¡−œ 6¢V p¡c¡ hm J 4¢V L¡−m¡ hm B−R
Hhw
fË−aÉL¢V hm pj¡e BL«¢a J pj¡e JS−elz
HMe fË−aÉL f¡œ −b−L 1¢V L−l hm a¥−m ¢e−m (Hhw fË−aÉLh¡l
−a¡m¡ hm Bh¡l I I f¡−œ ¢g¢l−u ¢c−m) A¿¹a HL¢V p¡c¡ hm
JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x H−r−œ pñhfl ¢ae¢V ¢hpwh¡c£ ¢hLÒf qm x
(1) fËbj f¡œ −b−L p¡c¡ hm(W1) Hhw ¢àa£u f¡œ −b−L L¡−m¡ hm (B2)
(2) fËbj f¡œ −b−L L¡−m¡ hm (B1) Hhw ¢àa£u f¡œ −b−L p¡c¡ hm(W2)
(3) fËbj f¡œ −b−L p¡c¡ hm (W1) Hhw ¢àa£u f¡œ −b−L p¡c¡ hm (W2)
pw−r−f, ¢ae¢V ¢hLÒf qm x
(1) W1 and B2 (2) B1 and W2 (3) W1 and W2
mrZ£u ¢hou qm fËbj f¡−œl −r−œ t = 5, ¢àa£u f¡−œl −r−œ t
= 10
Hme, P (W1 and B2) = 1/5 x 4/10 = 8/50
P (B1 and W2 ) = 3/5 x 6/10 = 18/50
P (W1 and W2 ) = 2/5 x 6/10 = 12/50
HMe, A¿¹a HL¢V p¡c¡ hm JW¡ j¡−e x
W1 and B2 Abh¡ B1 and W2 Abh¡ W1 and W2
JW¡ z L¡−SC A¿¹a HL¢V p¡c¡ hm JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ qm x
8/50 + 18/50 + 12/50 = 38/50 = 19/25
H Ešl Bjl¡ Hi¡−hJ −f−a f¡la¡jz A¿¹a HL¢V p¡c¡ hm e¡
JW¡ OV−a f¡−l k¢c c¤¢V L¡−m¡ hm J−W, k¢c B1 and B2
pw−k¡N¢V O−Vz; HMe
P (B1 and B2 )= 3/5 x 4/10 = 12/50 = 6/25
HMe, 1 −b−L 6/25 ¢h−u¡N L−l f¡C x 1 - 6/25 h¡ 19/25 z
H¢V B1 and B2 e¡ JW¡l, h¡ A¿¹a HL¢V p¡c¡ hm JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡z
Apa¿»
Apa¿» OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ k¤š² L−l S¢Vm OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu
H−r−œ Apa¿»
Apa¿» OVe¡l pw−k¡N x k¢c a¡q−m J L Hhw M-Hl pñ¡hÉa¡ pñ¡hÉa¡
¢eZÑ−u …−Zl
…−Zl p−œl
§−œl fË−u¡Nz
HM¡−e −k pw−rfL fËa£L…¢ml hÉhq¡l q−h a¡l AbÑ Bjl¡ fËb−j −S−e
−ehz
pw−rfL fËa£L −L¡eÚ Lb¡l pw−rfL
Pa(b) k¢c a O−V a¡q−m b-OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
Pb(a) k¢c b O−V a¡q−m a-OV¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
cªø¡¿¹ x
dl¡k¡LÚ a qm qla−el a¡p JW¡z b qm l¦Ca−el a¡p JW¡z j−e L¢l,
fËbj −M−f qlae EWmz a¡q−m, l¦Cae JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ? H Lb¡¢V
Bjl¡ ¢mMh HCi¡−h x Pa(b)-Hl pñ¡hÉa¡ La h¡ Hi¡−h x P qlae
(l¦Cae) La ? fËp‰a Hl Ešl qm x 13/51 z
Bjl¡ S¡¢e, HL¢V ¢eMy¥a h¡¢™−ml i¡−m¡ L−l iy¡S¡ a¡p
−b−L HL¢V a¥−m ¢e−m I a¡p¢V qlae qJu¡l (HC
OVe¡¢V−L L h−m ¢Q¢q²a Llh) pñ¡hÉa¡ 13/52 z dl¡k¡LÚ
fËbj V¡e¡l −r−œ qlae EWmz HC a¡p¢V h¡¢™−m −glv
¢c−u Hhw i¡−m¡ L−l −iy−S Bh¡l HL¢V a¡p V¡e−m I
a¡p¢V qlae qJu¡l pñ¡hÉa¡J 13/52 z ¢L¿¹¥ V¡e¡ a¡p¢V
Bl h¡¢™−m −glv e¡ f¡¢W−u k¢c ¢àa£uh¡−l Bl HL¢V
a¡p V¡e¡ qu a¡q−m I a¡p¢V qlae qJu¡l(H OVe¡−L M
h−m ¢Q¢q²a Llh) pñ¡hÉa¡ La ? H −r−œ M ¢L¿¹¥ üa¿»
OVe¡ eu; L¡lZ fËbj −r−œl L M-−L fËi¡¢ha L−lz
H−r−œ t = 51, f = 12; p¤¤al¡w HMe qlae JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡ 12/51 z
Bjl¡ S¡¢e, k¢c pw−k±¢NL OVe¡l A‰ OVe¡…¢m üa¿» qu a¡q−m …−Zl
p§œ fË−u¡N L−l pjpÉ¡l pj¡d¡e Ll¡ k¡uz ¢L¿¹¥ k¢c Bjl¡ HLV¥ p¡hd¡ea¡
Ahmðe L¢l AbÑ¡v t, f pÇf−LÑ −Mu¡m l¡¢M a¡q−m Aüa¿» OVe¡ pw−k¡−Nl
−hm¡J …−Zl p§œ fË−u¡N L−l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu Ll¡ k¡uz H lLj −r−œ ¢e−jÀl
p§œ¢V fË−u¡N Ll¡ k¡uz
P(a and b) = P(a) x Pa(b)
j−e Ll, (a) qm x qla−ela a¡p JW¡
(b) qm x (Bl HLM¡e¡) qla−el a¡p JW¡
Pa(b) qm x fËbj −r−œ qla−el a¡p EW−m, Hhw I a¡p¢V
h¡¢™−m −glv e¡ ¢c−m, Bh¡l qla−el a¡p JW¡z
fËnÀ qm HC f¢l¢ÙÛ¢a−a P(a and b) , a-Hhw-b JW¡l, j¡−e - flfl c¤
M¡e¡ qlae JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x (a) = 13/52 Pa (b) = 12/51
p¤¤al¡w P (a) x Pa (b) =13/52 x 12/51 = 156/2652 = 1/17
p¤¤al¡w H−r−œ P(a and b) = 1/17 z
Bl HL¢V Ec¡qlZ x
HL¢V a¡p a¥−m ¢e−m Hhw −L¡e h¡−lC JW¡ a¡p¢V h¡¢™−m
−glv e¡ ¢c−m, flfl 5 h¡l l¦Cae JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešl x 13/52 x 12/51 x 11/50 x 10/49 x 9/48
= 36/66640 z
BlJ HL¢V Ec¡qlZ x
dl¡k¡LÚ −L¡−e¡ h¡−„ pj¡e BL¡−ll J pj¡e JS−el 4¢V
p¡c¡ hm Bl 6¢V L¡−m¡ hm B−Rz flfl HL¢V hm a¥−m ¢e−m
Hhw −L¡−e¡ h¡lC −a¡m¡ hm h¡−„ −glv e¡ ¢c−m ¢aeh¡l flfl
p¡c¡ hm JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ La ?
Ešlx 4/10 x 3/9 x 2/8 = 24/720 h¡ 1/30 z
Aü¿»
Aü¿» OVe¡l pw−k¡N ¢c−u N¢Wa °hL¢ hL¢ÒfL OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ x …Z J −k¡−Nl
p−œl
§−œl k¤NÈ fË−u¡N x
…Z J −k¡−Nl p§−œl k¤NÈ fË−u¡−Nl L−uL¢V cªø¡¿¹ Bjl¡ −c−M ¢e−a
f¡¢lz B−eL pju Bjl¡ Hje °hL¢ÒfL OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu Ll−a Q¡C
k¡l A‰…¢m pw−k±¢NL OVe¡ - Hje pw−k±¢NL OVe¡ k¡l A‰-OVe¡ A-
üa¿»z H lLj °hL¢ÒfL OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢L L−l ¢eZÑu Ll−a qu a¡
¢e−jÀl Ec¡qlZ¢V −cM−m pq−S h¤T−a f¡lhz
fËnÀ x a¡p −Mm¡u −L¡−e¡ −M−m¡u¡s flfl 5 M¡e¡ HL l−Pl a¡p
f¡Ju¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ L£ ?
Ešl x 5 M¡e¡ HL l−Pl a¡p −LE −f−a f¡−l k¢c a¡l q¡−a,
(1) flfl fy¡QM¡e¡ qla−el a¡p J−W [A] Abh¡,
(2) flfl fy¡QM¡e¡ l¦Ca−el a¡p J−W [B] Abh¡,
(3) flfl fy¡QM¡e¡ Cú¡f−el a¡p J−W [C] Abh¡,
(4) flfl fy¡QM¡e¡ ¢Q¢sa−el a¡p J−W [D] z
hm¡h¡ýmÉ, H−r−œ P(a) x Pa(b) p§œ¢V fË−u¡N Ll−a q−hz L¡lZ, −k a¡p
L¡E−L −h−V −cJu¡ qu, a¡ HLC −Mm¡u −glv −eJu¡ qu e¡z g−m, flfl
a¡p −h−V ¢c−m Bl œ²jn L−j k¡uz HMe, 5 M¡e¡ qlae JW¡l
pñ¡hÉa¡, h¡
P(A) = 13/52 12/51 11/50 10/49 9/48 = 33/66640
HLCi¡−h, P(B) = I
P(C) = I
P(D) = I
p¤¤al¡w HL q¡−a −L¡−e¡ HL l−Pl 5 M¡e¡ (Q¡l l−Pl a¡p - H−cl
−L¡−e¡ HL l−Pl 5 M¡e¡ ) JW¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ h¡,
P(A or B or C or D) = 33/66640 + 33/66640 + 33/66640 +
33/66640 + 33/66640
B−l¡q£
B−l¡q£ pñ¡hÉa¡
pñ¡hÉa¡ x f¢lpwMÉ¡
lpwMÉ¡ ašÄ ( )
Bjl¡ HarZ −k OVe¡…¢ml pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu Llm¡j −p…¢m
−kje a¡p −Mm¡, f¡n¡ −Mm¡ h¡ j¤â¡ ¢e−rf - H pLm −r−œ p§œ
fË−u¡N L−l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu Ll¡ A−eL pqSz ¢L¿¹¥ Bj¡−cl
S£h−el Hje A−eL ¢hou B−R −kje SeÈ, jªa¥É, ¢hh¡q, −l¡NhÉ¡¢d
CaÉ¡¢c CaÉ¡¢cz HC −rœ…¢m−a p§œ fË−u¡N L−l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu
Ll¡ M¤hC L¢Wez a−h −Qø¡ Ll−m HC ph −r−œJ pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu
Ll¡ k¡u k¡ Bjl¡ HMe B−m¡Qe¡ Llhz
Bjl¡ C¢af§−hÑ Bh−l¡q£ OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu L−l
H−p¢Rz Bl HMe B−l¡q£ OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑ−ul −Qø¡ Llhz
Bh−l¡q£ OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ N¡¢Z¢aL fÜ¢al fË−u¡−N ¢eZÑu Ll¡
q−u−Rz ¢L¿¹¥ B−l¡q£ OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢e¢ZÑa q−h fkÑ−hrZ fÜ¢al
fË−u¡−N AbÑ¡v B−l¡q£ OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ fkÑ−hrZ R¡s¡ pñhC euz
plm OVe¡l Bh−l¡q£ pñ¡hÉa¡ ¢eZÑu Ll¡ qu j§m N¡¢Z¢aL
p§œ x f, t CaÉ¡¢c fË−u¡N L−lz B−l¡q£ OVe¡l pñ¡hÉa¡
¢eZÑu Ll−a ¢N−uJ Bj¡−cl Ae¤l©f HL¢V p§−œl p¡q¡kÉ
¢e−a q−h a¡ qm x m , n fË−u¡N z ¢L¿¹¥ c¤ lLj pñ¡hÉa¡
NZe¡ Ll¡l f¡bÑLÉ qm HC x B−l¡q£ NZe¡l −k m, n
pwNËq Ll¡ qu a¡l Evp qm fkÑ−hrZz HM¡−e Bj¡−cl
j−e l¡M−a q−h m , n -−a n = La h¡l fkÑ−hrZ Ll¡
qm −p pwMÉ¡, Bl m = Lah¡l D¢Ãpa OVe¡¢V OVm −p
pwMÉ¡z
dl¡k¡LÚ h¡l fkÑ−hr−Z −cM¡ −Nm h¡l OVe¡¢V O−V−Rz
a¡q−m OVe¡¢Vl pñ¡hÉa¡l Bpæ j¡e (approximate
value) m/ n h−m dl¡ k¡u k¢c n œ²−jC hs quz
cªø¡¿¹ x
j−e L¢l, −L¡−e¡ Hm¡L¡u ¢h¢iæ hu−pl, ¢h¢iæ dl−el
1000 −m¡−Ll cy¡a fl£r¡ L−l −cM¡ −Nm, H−cl j−dÉ 750 Se
−L¡e e¡ −L¡e cy¡−al −l¡−N −i¡−Nz (HM−e n =1000, m = 750)z
H a−bÉl ¢i¢š−a ¢pÜ¡¿¹ Ll¡ k¡u x H Hm¡L¡u −m¡−L−cl cy¡−al
−l¡−N −i¡N¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ fË¡u 750/1000 h¡ 3/4 z kMe hm¡ qu,
f¢ÕQjh−‰l R¡œ−cl naLl¡ 70 Se −Q¡−Ml −l¡−N −i¡−N, aMe
Bp−m k¡ hm¡ qu a¡ qm x f¢ÕQjh−‰l R¡Éœ−cl −Q¡−Ml −l¡−N
−i¡N¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ fË¡u 7/10 z −plLj f¢lpwMÉ¡−el ¢i¢š−a Bjl¡
h¢m x naLl¡ 90 Se i¡la£u o¡V hRl f§ZÑ qJu¡l B−N j¡l¡
k¡uz H h¡−LÉl hš²hÉ x −L¡−e¡ i¡la£−ul o¡V hR−ll B−N j¡l¡
k¡Ju¡l pñ¡hÉa¡ fË¡u 9/10 z