■ ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Class 12 Physics — Complete Self-Study Notes

CBSE • JEE • NEET • Competitive Exams

"Study once, revise forever."

Beautifully formatted study material designed for fast revision and deep understanding.
■ ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Class 12 Physics — Complete Self-Study Notes

CBSE Board | JEE | NEET | Competitive Exams

**"These notes are designed to be your only resource for this chapter. Study once, revise
forever."**

---

■ TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Chapter Introduction & Historical Background

2. Magnetic Flux

3. Electromagnetic Induction — Core Concept

4. Faraday's Laws of EMI

5. Lenz's Law

6. Motional EMF

7. Induced EMF in a Rotating Rod

8. Self Induction & Self Inductance

9. Mutual Induction & Mutual Inductance

10. Energy Stored in an Inductor

11. Eddy Currents

12. AC Generator

13. Transformer (Brief)

14. Fleming's Right Hand Rule

15. Conservation of Energy in EMI

16. Complete Formula Sheet

17. Full Derivations

18. Numericals — Solved (Board + JEE/NEET)

19. Conceptual Understanding & Memory Tricks

20. Quick Revision Notes

21. MCQs (50 Questions)

22. Assertion-Reason Questions (20)

23. Case Study Questions (20)

24. Competency-Based Questions (10)

25. Previous Year Board Questions (25)

---

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PART 1: CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

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1.1 What is Electromagnetic Induction?

Definition: Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) is the phenomenon of production of an electromotive force

(EMF) and hence current in a conductor or coil due to a change in magnetic flux linked with it.

■ **Simple Intuition:** Just as a charge creates an electric field, a **changing** magnetic field
creates an electric field — and this electric field drives current!

Key Point: The EMF is induced only when the magnetic flux is changing. A static magnetic field (no
matter how strong) does NOT induce any EMF.

---

1.2 Historical Background

■ Michael Faraday (1831)

- Nationality: British
- Discovery: Discovered electromagnetic induction independently in 1831

- Experiment: He found that moving a magnet near a coil (or changing current in a nearby coil) could
produce electric current

- Contribution: Formulated the two laws of EMI (Faraday's Laws)

- Famous quote: "Nothing is too wonderful to be true"

■ Joseph Henry (1831)

- Nationality: American

- Discovery: Discovered EMI independently almost simultaneously with Faraday

- Contribution: Discovered self-induction; the unit of inductance (Henry, H) is named after him

- Note: Faraday published first, so credit goes to him

■ Heinrich Lenz (1834)

- Nationality: German-Baltic

- Contribution: Formulated Lenz's Law — the law that determines the direction of induced current

- Significance: His law is essentially a consequence of conservation of energy

---

1.3 Importance & Real-Life Applications

Application Principle Used

|---|---|

Electric Generator Rotating coil in magnetic field induces EMF

Transformer Mutual induction between coils

Induction Motor EMI drives rotation

Metal Detector Eddy currents in metals

Electric Guitar Pickup Vibrating string changes flux

Induction Cooktop Eddy currents heat the vessel

Braking in Trains (Maglev) Magnetic braking using eddy currents

Card Readers (ATM) Changing magnetic stripe induces signal

MRI Machines Based on electromagnetic principles

 Wireless Charging Mutual induction

---

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PART 2: MAGNETIC FLUX

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2.1 Definition

Magnetic Flux (Φ): The total number of magnetic field lines passing perpendicularly through a given
surface area is called magnetic flux.

More precisely: Magnetic flux through a surface is the dot product of the magnetic field vector (B) and
the area vector (A).

---

2.2 Formula
```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ Φ = B · A = BA cos θ ■
■ ■
■ For non-uniform field: Φ = ∫ B · dA ■
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

Symbol Meanings:

Symbol Quantity SI Unit

|---|---|---|

Φ (Phi) Magnetic Flux Weber (Wb)

 B Magnetic Field (Magnetic Flux Density) Tesla (T)

A Area of the surface m²

θ Angle between B and area vector (normal to surface) degrees/radians

SI Unit: Weber (Wb)

- 1 Weber = 1 Tesla × 1 m²

- 1 Wb = 1 T·m² = 1 V·s

- Also expressed in Maxwell (CGS): 1 Wb = 10■ Maxwell

Dimensional Formula:
```

[Φ] = [B][A] = [MT■²A■¹][L²] = [ML²T■²A■¹]

```

---

2.3 Key Cases for Magnetic Flux

```

CASE 1: θ = 0° (B perpendicular to plane / parallel to area vector)

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

↑ B Area Vector →→→

↑ Plane: ____________

Φ = BA cos 0° = BA ← MAXIMUM FLUX

CASE 2: θ = 90° (B parallel to plane / B ⊥ area vector)

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

→ B Area Vector ↑

Φ = BA cos 90° = 0 ← ZERO FLUX

CASE 3: θ = 180° (B anti-parallel to area vector)

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Φ = BA cos 180° = -BA ← NEGATIVE / MINIMUM FLUX

 ```

■■ **Common Mistake:** Students confuse the angle θ. Remember — θ is the angle between **B**
and the **area vector** (normal to the surface), NOT the angle between B and the surface itself.

If angle with surface = α, then θ = 90° - α, so Φ = BA sin α

---

2.4 Physical Significance of Magnetic Flux

- Flux represents how many field lines "thread through" a surface

- It's a scalar quantity (dot product gives scalar)

- Can be positive, negative, or zero depending on orientation

- Flux is maximum when field lines are perpendicular to the surface

- Flux is zero when field lines are parallel to the surface

---

2.5 Important Notes on Magnetic Flux

■ **Board Exam Point:** The net magnetic flux through any **closed** surface is always **ZERO**.
This is Gauss's Law for Magnetism:

**■ B · dA = 0**

(Magnetic monopoles do not exist!)

■ For a coil with N turns, the **flux linkage** = NΦ (used in self and mutual inductance)

---

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PART 3: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

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3.1 Faraday's Experiments

Experiment 1: Magnet and Coil

```

SETUP DIAGRAM:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Galvanometer

G
■■■■■
________ ________

[COIL] [COIL]

/ \ Secondary

N ■■■■■■■■ S

Bar Magnet

ACTION → OBSERVATION:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Magnet MOVED TOWARD coil → Galvanometer deflects (one side)

Magnet STATIONARY → Galvanometer shows NO deflection

Magnet MOVED AWAY → Galvanometer deflects (opposite side)

Magnet moved FASTER → LARGER deflection (more current)

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

Experiment 2: Two Coils (Mutual Induction)

```

SETUP:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Primary Coil (P) Secondary Coil (S)

■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■
 ■ P ■ ■ S ■

■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■ ↕ G (Galvanometer)

Battery + Switch (K)

ACTION → OBSERVATION:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Switch K CLOSED (current starts) → G deflects momentarily

Switch K open, steady current → G shows NO deflection

Switch K OPENED (current stops) → G deflects (opposite direction)

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

Key Conclusion from Experiments:

EMF is induced whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with a circuit. The magnitude
of induced EMF depends on the RATE of change of flux.

---

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PART 4: FARADAY'S LAWS OF EMI

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4.1 First Law

**"Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an EMF is induced in the circuit.
The induced EMF lasts as long as the change in flux continues."**

In simple words: Change in flux → Induced EMF → Induced Current (if circuit is closed)

---
4.2 Second Law

**"The magnitude of the induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with the circuit."**

```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ ε = - N (dΦ/dt) ■
■ ■
■ For a single turn: ε = - dΦ/dt ■
■ ■
■ Average EMF: ε_avg = -N (∆Φ/∆t) ■
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

Symbol Meanings:

Symbol Meaning SI Unit

|---|---|---|

ε (epsilon) Induced EMF Volt (V)

N Number of turns in the coil Dimensionless

dΦ/dt Rate of change of magnetic flux Wb/s = V

Φ Magnetic flux through ONE turn Weber (Wb)

NΦ Flux linkage (total flux) Weber-turns (Wb)

The Negative Sign:

The negative sign is due to Lenz's Law — the induced EMF opposes the change that causes it. This is
a consequence of the law of conservation of energy.

---

4.3 Derivation of Faraday's Law (Basic Form)

Given: A coil of N turns. At time t■, flux = Φ■. At time t■, flux = Φ■.

Step 1: Change in flux linkage = N(Φ■ - Φ■) = N∆Φ

Step 2: By Faraday's second law, induced EMF is proportional to rate of change:

```

ε ∝ ∆Φ/∆t
 ```

Step 3: For instantaneous EMF:

```

ε = -N dΦ/dt

```

Step 4: Since Φ = BA cos θ, we can write:

```

ε = -N d(BA cos θ)/dt

```

This shows EMF can be induced by changing:

- B (magnetic field strength)

- A (area of the coil)

- θ (angle between B and area vector)

---

4.4 Physical Significance

- The induced EMF drives current through the circuit (if closed)

- The induced current creates its own magnetic field that opposes the original change (Lenz's Law)

- This is a manifestation of the coupling between electric and magnetic fields

---

4.5 Important Board Points

■ **1-Mark Question:** State Faraday's Second Law.

**Answer:** The magnitude of induced EMF is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage:
ε = -N(dΦ/dt)

■ **Common Mistake:** Students forget the factor of N (number of turns). For a single turn coil,
N=1, so ε = -dΦ/dt. But for a coil with N turns, always multiply by N.

■ **Trick:** The unit of dΦ/dt works out to Volts: 1 Wb/s = 1 V (verify this!)
---

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PART 5: LENZ'S LAW

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5.1 Statement

**"The direction of the induced current is always such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux
that causes it."**

OR equivalently:

**"The induced current sets up a magnetic field that opposes the change in the original magnetic
flux."**

---

5.2 Explanation with Examples

Example 1: Magnet Approaching Coil

```

DIAGRAM:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

N ■■■■ S →→→ moving toward coil

■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ COIL ■
■ ■■■■■ ■ ← induced current

■■■■■■■■■■■■

S end faces magnet

(Repels magnet → opposes approach)

ANALYSIS:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Magnet (N toward coil) approaches →

Flux through coil INCREASES (pointing right →) →

To oppose this increase, induced B must point LEFT ←

By right-hand rule, current flows counter-clockwise

(when viewed from the magnet side → acts as S pole)

S pole faces approaching N → REPULSION → opposes motion ✓

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
```

Example 2: Magnet Receding from Coil

```

N ■■■■ S ←← moving away from coil

■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ COIL ■
■ ⊗⊗⊗⊗⊗ ■ ← induced current (reversed)

■■■■■■■■■■■■

N end faces magnet

(Attracts magnet → opposes recession)

Flux DECREASES → induced B tries to maintain it (points right →)

Current flows clockwise → acts as N pole → attracts receding magnet

```

---

5.3 Lenz's Law and Conservation of Energy

This is the most important conceptual aspect of Lenz's Law:

- If induced current aided the cause (instead of opposing), it would increase the flux further, which
would increase the current further — a runaway effect giving infinite energy. This violates conservation
of energy!

- Since induced current opposes the cause, we must do work against this opposition to move the
magnet
- This work done = electrical energy generated

- Energy is conserved: Mechanical energy → Electrical energy

■ **Lenz's Law IS conservation of energy for electromagnetic induction!**

---

5.4 Lenz's Law for Different Cases

Situation Flux Change Induced Current Direction Effect

|---|---|---|---|

Magnet N-pole approaching Increases Counter-clockwise (S pole toward magnet) Repels magnet

Magnet N-pole receding Decreases Clockwise (N pole toward magnet) Attracts magnet

Coil moved into stronger B Increases Opposes entry Repels coil

Current in primary increased Secondary flux increases Opposes increase Weakens effect

---

5.5 Mathematical Form of Lenz's Law

The negative sign in Faraday's law encodes Lenz's law:

```

ε = -N dΦ/dt

```

- If dΦ/dt > 0 (flux increasing), then ε < 0 (EMF in direction to reduce flux)

- If dΦ/dt < 0 (flux decreasing), then ε > 0 (EMF in direction to maintain flux)

---

5.6 Important Board Questions on Lenz's Law

■ **3-Mark Board Question:** "A circular coil is moved toward a bar magnet. Using Lenz's Law,
predict the direction of induced current and show that it obeys conservation of energy."

Answer outline:

1. As coil approaches N-pole, flux increases

2. By Lenz's Law, induced current creates opposing field (acts as N-pole toward magnet)

3. This opposition means we must do work to push the coil → work done converts to electrical energy

4. No energy is created from nothing → Conservation of energy holds ✓

---

5.7 Fleming's Right Hand Rule

Used to find the direction of induced current (conventional current) in a conductor moving in a
magnetic field.

```

FLEMING'S RIGHT HAND RULE:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Hold the right hand such that:

FOREFINGER → points in direction of Magnetic Field (B)

THUMB → points in direction of Motion of conductor (v)

MIDDLE FINGER → gives direction of Induced Current (I)

Memory Aid: "FBI" rule (Field, Before/thumb, Induced current)

Or: "Stretch FBI with Right Hand"

Middle Finger (Current I) ↑

Forefinger (Field B) →■■■■■■■■■

Thumb (Motion v) → out of page

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

■■ **Do NOT confuse with:**

- **Fleming's Left Hand Rule** (for motor effect — force on current-carrying conductor in B field)

- **Right Hand Screw Rule** (for magnetic field around a straight wire)

Mnemonic:

- Right Hand = Right = Rotating = Generator (current is Generated → RIGHT HAND rule)
- Left Hand = Motor (current is supplied → LEFT HAND rule)

---

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■■■■■■

PART 6: MOTIONAL EMF

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■■■■■■

6.1 Concept

When a conductor moves through a magnetic field, the free electrons in the conductor experience a
magnetic force (Lorentz force), which causes charge separation, creating a potential difference (EMF).

This is called dynamically induced EMF or motional EMF.

---

6.2 Derivation of Motional EMF

```

SETUP:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

←■■■■■■■ l ■■■■■■→

P ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ Q ← conductor PQ of length l

⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ B into page

→→→ v conductor moves right with velocity v

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```
Step 1: Consider conductor PQ of length l moving right with velocity v in magnetic field B (perpendicular
to plane, into page).

Step 2: A free electron (charge -e) in the conductor experiences Lorentz force:
```

F = q(v × B)
```

For a positive charge: F = ev × B (using right-hand rule, force is from Q to P, i.e., upward)

Step 3: This force separates charges:

- Positive charges accumulate at P (top)

- Negative charges accumulate at Q (bottom)

Step 4: An electric field E builds up inside the conductor due to this separation. Equilibrium is reached
when:

```

Electric force = Magnetic force

qE = qvB

E = vB
```

Step 5: The potential difference (EMF) across the conductor:

```

ε = E × l = vBl

```

Step 6: For the general case where v, B, and l are not all perpendicular:

```

ε = (v × B) · l = Blv sin θ

```

where θ is the angle between v and B.

```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ ε = Blv ■
■ ■
■ (when v ⊥ B and l ⊥ both v and B) ■
■ ■
■ General: ε = Blv sin θ ■
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```
---

6.3 Motional EMF from Flux Perspective

This same result can be derived using Faraday's law:

```

In time dt, conductor moves dx = v·dt

Area swept = l · dx = l · v · dt

Change in flux: dΦ = B · l · v · dt

Rate of change: dΦ/dt = Blv

Therefore: ε = dΦ/dt = Blv ✓

```

Both approaches give the same answer — confirming the consistency of Faraday's law.

---

6.4 The Sliding Rod on Rails Problem

This is the most important numerical type for this topic!

```

DIAGRAM:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

A ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ B

⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ →→→ v Rod PQ slides

⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ on rails AB & CD

C ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ D

Separation between rails = l

External resistance = R

No friction, no resistance of rod (ideal case)

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
```

Quantities:

- Induced EMF: ε = Blv

- Induced current: I = ε/R = Blv/R

- Force on rod (opposing motion by Lenz's): F = BIl = B²l²v/R

- Power dissipated: P = I²R = B²l²v²/R

- Power input (to maintain v): P = Fv = B²l²v²/R ✓ (same — energy conserved!)

---

6.5 Induced EMF in a Rotating Rod

Setup: A conducting rod of length l rotating about one end with angular velocity ω in a uniform magnetic
field B (perpendicular to plane of rotation).

```

DIAGRAM:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

ω (angular velocity, counterclockwise)

O ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ P

(pivot) (free end)

←■■ l ■■■■■■→

B is directed INTO the page (⊗)

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

Derivation:

Step 1: Consider a small element of rod at distance x from O, having length dx.

Step 2: The velocity of this element: v = ωx

Step 3: EMF induced in this small element:

 ```

dε = B(v)(dx) = B(ωx)(dx) = Bω x dx
```

Step 4: Total EMF by integrating from 0 to l:

```

ε = ∫■■ Bω x dx = Bω [x²/2]■■ = Bω l²/2

```
```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ ε = ½ Bωl² ■
■ ■
■ Since ω = 2πf = 2π/T: ■
■ ε = ½ B(2πf)l² = πBfl² ■
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

■ **This derivation is extremely important for JEE and NEET!**

---

6.6 Dynamically Induced EMF vs Statically Induced EMF

Feature Dynamically Induced EMF Statically Induced EMF

|---|---|---|

Cause Motion of conductor in B field Change in B field (conductor stationary)

Example Generator armature rotating Transformer secondary coil

Relative motion Conductor moves, B may be static B changes, conductor is static

Formula ε = Blv ε = -N dΦ/dt

Also called Motional EMF Transformer EMF

---

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■■■■■■

PART 7: SELF INDUCTION

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■■■■■■

7.1 Definition

Self Induction is the property of a coil (inductor) by virtue of which it opposes any change in the current
flowing through it, by inducing an EMF in itself.

Key Idea: When current through a coil changes, the magnetic flux linked with itself changes, inducing
an EMF in the coil that opposes the change in current.

■ **Analogy:** Self induction is to electricity what **inertia** is to mechanics. Just as inertia

opposes change in velocity, self induction opposes change in current.

---

7.2 How Self Induction Works

```

DIAGRAM:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

■■■■L■■■■

■■■■■■ ■■■■■■

Battery ■ COIL ■ Current increasing →

■■■■■■ ■■■■■■

■■■■■■■■■

When I increases → Φ increases → Induced EMF (by Lenz's)

opposes increase of I

When I decreases → Φ decreases → Induced EMF tries to

maintain I (opposes decrease)

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

---
7.3 Coefficient of Self Induction (Self Inductance L)

Definition: The self inductance of a coil is numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked with the coil
when unit current flows through it.

Relation between flux and current:

The flux linkage NΦ is proportional to current I:

```

NΦ = LI
```

where L is the self inductance or coefficient of self induction.

Induced EMF due to self induction:

```

ε = -N dΦ/dt = -d(NΦ)/dt = -d(LI)/dt

```

If L is constant:

```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ ε = -L (dI/dt) ■
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

SI Unit of Self Inductance:

```

L = ε / (dI/dt)

Unit: 1 Henry (H) = 1 Volt / (1 Ampere/second) = 1 V·s/A = 1 Ω·s

[L] = [ML²T■²A■²]

```

1 Henry: A coil has self inductance of 1 Henry if an EMF of 1 Volt is induced in it when current changes
at the rate of 1 A/s.

---

7.4 Self Inductance of a Solenoid (Important Derivation)

```
SETUP:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■

■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

←■■■■■■■■■■■■ l ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■→

n = N/l turns per unit length

Cross-sectional area = A

Current flowing = I

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
```

Step 1: Magnetic field inside solenoid:

```

B = µ■nI = µ■(N/l)I
```

Step 2: Flux through one turn:

```

Φ = BA = µ■(N/l)I × A

```

Step 3: Total flux linkage (N turns):

```

NΦ = N × µ■(N/l)IA = µ■N²A·I/l

```

Step 4: Since NΦ = LI:

```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ L = µ■N²A/l = µ■n²Al ■
■ ■
■ where n = N/l (turns per unit length) ■
■ For solenoid with core: L = µ■µ■N²A/l ■
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

Special Notes:

- L depends only on geometry (N, A, l) and medium (µ■, µ■) — NOT on current
- Adding a ferromagnetic core (µ■ >> 1) greatly increases L

- L ∝ N² (doubling turns → 4× inductance)

- L ∝ A (larger cross-section → more inductance)

- L ∝ 1/l (shorter solenoid → more inductance)

---

7.5 Physical Significance of Self Inductance

Self inductance L tells us:

1. How much EMF is induced for a given rate of change of current

2. How much energy is stored in the magnetic field for a given current

3. How strongly the coil "resists" changes in current (electromagnetic inertia)

---

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

PART 8: MUTUAL INDUCTION

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

8.1 Definition

Mutual Induction is the phenomenon in which a change in current in one coil (primary) induces an
EMF in a neighboring coil (secondary) due to the change in magnetic flux linking the secondary coil.

---

8.2 Setup and Explanation

```
DIAGRAM:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Primary Coil (P) Secondary Coil (S)

N■ turns N■ turns

■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■
■ P ■ ≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈ ■ S ■

■■■■■■■■■■ Magnetic ■■■■■■■■■■

■ ■ coupling ↕
■ ■ Galvanometer G

Battery

+ Switch

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

When current in P changes → Flux in P changes →

Some flux links with S → Flux in S changes →

EMF induced in S → Current flows in S (if closed)

```

---

8.3 Coefficient of Mutual Induction (Mutual Inductance M)

Definition: Mutual inductance M between two coils is defined as the magnetic flux linkage in one coil
(secondary) per unit current in the other coil (primary).

```

N■Φ■■ = MI■ (flux in S due to current I■ in P)

```

Induced EMF in secondary:

```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ ε■ = -M (dI■/dt) ■
■ ■
■ Similarly: ε■ = -M (dI■/dt) ■
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

SI Unit of M: Henry (H) — same as L

1 Henry: Two coils have mutual inductance of 1 H if an EMF of 1 V is induced in one coil when current
in the other changes at 1 A/s.

---

8.4 Mutual Inductance of Two Coaxial Solenoids (Derivation)

```

SETUP: Solenoid S■ (N■ turns, area A, length l)

wound over S■ (N■ turns, length l)

```

Step 1: Current I■ in inner solenoid S■ creates field:

```

B■ = µ■n■I■ = µ■(N■/l)I■

```

Step 2: Assuming all flux from S■ links with S■ (perfect coupling):

```

Φ■■ = B■ × A = µ■(N■/l)I■ × A

```

Step 3: Total flux linkage of S■:

```

N■Φ■■ = N■ × µ■(N■/l)I■A = µ■(N■N■/l)AI■

```

Step 4: Since N■Φ■■ = MI■:

```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ M = µ■N■N■A/l ■
■ ■
■ With core: M = µ■µ■N■N■A/l ■
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

---

8.5 Relation between M, L■, L■

```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ M = k√(L■L■) ■
■ ■
■ where k = coupling coefficient (0 ≤ k ≤ 1) ■
 ■ ■
■ k = 1: Perfect coupling (all flux links) ■
■ k = 0: No coupling (coils far apart or ⊥) ■
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

Maximum possible M: M_max = √(L■L■) when k = 1

---

8.6 Factors Affecting Mutual Inductance

Factor Effect on M

|---|---|

Number of turns N■, N■ M ∝ N■N■

Area of cross-section A M∝A

Length of solenoid l M ∝ 1/l

Medium (relative permeability µ■) M ∝ µ■

Distance between coils M decreases as distance increases

Angle between axes of coils M = 0 when axes are perpendicular

Presence of magnetic shield Reduces M

---

8.7 Self Inductance vs Mutual Inductance

Feature Self Inductance (L) Mutual Inductance (M)

|---|---|---|

Definition Opposition to change in own current EMF in one coil due to change in another

Number of coils One coil involved Two coils involved

Formula NΦ = LI N■Φ■■ = MI■

EMF formula ε = -L(dI/dt) ε■ = -M(dI■/dt)

Application Inductors, chokes Transformers, wireless charging

Always positive? Yes, L > 0 always Yes, M ≥ 0

---
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

PART 9: ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

9.1 Derivation

When current I flows through inductor L, energy is stored in the magnetic field.

Step 1: When current changes by dI in time dt, the back EMF is:

```

ε = L(dI/dt)

```

Step 2: Instantaneous power against back EMF:

```

P = εI = LI(dI/dt)

```

Step 3: Energy stored as current increases from 0 to I:

```

U = ∫ P dt = ∫■■ LI dI = L[I²/2]■■

```
```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ U = ½LI² ■
■ ■
■ SI Unit: Joule (J) ■
■ ■
■ Analogy: KE = ½mv² (L ↔ m, I ↔ v) ■
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

---
9.2 Energy Density of Magnetic Field

Energy stored per unit volume in a magnetic field:

```

u = U/Volume = (½LI²) / (Al)

For solenoid: L = µ■n²Al, B = µ■nI → I = B/(µ■n)

u = ½ × µ■n²Al × B²/(µ■n)² × 1/(Al)

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ u = B²/(2µ■) ■
■ ■
■ SI Unit: J/m³ ■
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

■ **Compare with electric field energy density:** u_E = ε■E²/2

---

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

PART 10: EDDY CURRENTS

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

10.1 Definition

Eddy Currents (Foucault Currents): When a solid conductor (or a bulk conductor) is placed in a
changing magnetic field, currents are induced throughout the volume of the conductor. These are called
eddy currents.

Discovered by: Léon Foucault (1851)

---

10.2 Formation of Eddy Currents

```

DIAGRAM:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Magnetic field going into page (⊗) and decreasing

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Induced eddy
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ currents flow
■ ■ (METAL BLOCK) ■ ■ in loops
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ throughout
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ the material
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Currents swirl like whirlpools → "eddy" currents

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

---

10.3 Properties of Eddy Currents

- They are induced in bulk conductors (not just wires)

- They flow in closed loops within the conductor

- They always follow Lenz's law (oppose the change causing them)

- They generate heat (I²R losses)

- They are more intense in better conductors and in stronger/faster changing B fields

- They create a retarding force on moving conductors

---

10.4 Disadvantages of Eddy Currents

1. Energy loss: Eddy currents dissipate energy as heat → reduces efficiency of machines

2. Heating: Can overheat transformer cores, motor cores

3. These are the primary reason transformer cores use laminated sheets instead of solid iron

How to Minimize Eddy Currents:

Use laminated cores — thin sheets of iron/silicon steel, insulated from each other.

```

SOLID CORE vs LAMINATED CORE:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Solid Core: ■ Laminated Core:

■

Large eddy ■ Small eddy

current paths ■ currents

[____________] ■ [■][■][■][■][■][■]

(high loss) ■ (much less loss)

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

---

10.5 Applications of Eddy Currents

1. Magnetic Braking (Electromagnetic Damping)

```

Moving conductor in B field → Eddy currents → Retarding force

Used in: Speedometers, galvanometers (dead-beat instruments), brakes in trains/roller coasters

```

2. Induction Furnace

```

High-frequency AC → Strong changing B → Intense eddy currents in metal → Heat melts metal

Used for: Melting metals, annealing, heat treatment

Advantage: Very clean, precise, no contamination

```

3. Metal Detectors (Airport Security)

```

Alternating B field → Eddy currents in hidden metal →

Secondary field detected by sensor → Alarm triggered
```

4. Induction Cooktop
```

High-frequency current in coil under cooktop →

Eddy currents in magnetic vessel (iron/steel) →

Vessel itself heats up (not the cooktop!)

Advantage: Very efficient, safe

```

5. Electric Power Meters (Energy Meter)

```

Rotating aluminum disc → Eddy currents from voltage coil →

Retarding torque proportional to power consumed

```

6. Dead-Beat Galvanometer

```

Aluminum frame of galvanometer coil →

Eddy currents damp oscillations →

Pointer comes to rest quickly (dead-beat)

```

7. Speedometer in Vehicles

```

Rotating magnet → Eddy currents in aluminum cup →

Torque proportional to speed → Deflects pointer

```

Application Principle Benefit

|---|---|---|

Induction furnace Heat from eddy currents Clean metal melting

Magnetic braking Retarding force Smooth, wear-free braking

Metal detector Secondary field detection Security screening

Induction cooking Vessel heating Energy-efficient cooking

Power meters Torque from eddy currents Accurate measurement

---

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

PART 11: AC GENERATOR

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

11.1 Principle

An AC generator (alternator) converts mechanical energy into electrical energy based on the
principle of electromagnetic induction (Faraday's Law).

Principle: When a coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field, the magnetic flux through it changes
continuously, inducing an alternating EMF.

---

11.2 Construction
```

DIAGRAM OF AC GENERATOR:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ Slip Ring 1 ■■■■→ Brush 1 ■■→ External
■ ■ Circuit

N ■■■■ ■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■ ■■■■ S

■ ■ ARMATURE ■ ■

N ■■■■ ■ ■ COIL ■ ■ ■■■■ S

■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■
■ Slip Ring 2 ■■■■→ Brush 2 ■■→ External

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ Circuit

↑↓ rotation (mechanical energy input)

Parts:

• Armature coil (ABCD): rectangular coil of N turns, area A

• Strong permanent magnet: provides uniform B field

• Slip rings: maintain electrical contact during rotation

• Carbon brushes: stationary contacts on slip rings

• External circuit: where output AC is used

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
```

---

11.3 Working

As the armature coil rotates with angular velocity ω:

At θ = 0° (coil perpendicular to B, plane parallel to B):

- Flux Φ = BA cos 0° = BA (maximum flux)

- Rate of change of flux = 0

- EMF = 0 (minimum)

At θ = 90° (coil plane perpendicular to B, coil parallel to B):

- Flux Φ = BA cos 90° = 0 (minimum flux)

- Rate of change of flux = maximum

- EMF = maximum

---

11.4 Derivation of EMF Equation

Step 1: At time t, if coil has rotated by angle θ = ωt from initial position (where coil plane is
perpendicular to B):

```

Φ = NBA cos(ωt)

```
Step 2: By Faraday's law:
```

ε = -N dΦ/dt = -N d(BA cos ωt)/dt = NBA ω sin(ωt)

```

Step 3: Maximum (peak) EMF when sin(ωt) = 1:

```

ε■ = NBAω
```

Step 4: Therefore:

```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■
■ ε = ε■ sin(ωt) ■
■ ■
■ where ε■ = NBAω = NBA(2πf) ■
■ ■
■ ε■ = Peak/Maximum EMF ■
■ ω = Angular frequency = 2πf = 2π/T ■
■ f = Frequency of rotation ■
■ T = Time period ■
■ ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

If initial position is coil plane parallel to B (θ = 90° initially):

```

ε = ε■ cos(ωt) [cosine form]

```

---

11.5 EMF vs Time Graph

```

ε■ ■ ■ ■ ■/■\■ ■ ■ ■ ■/■\■

/\/\

■■■■■■■■/■■■■■■■\■■■■■■■/■■■■■■■\■■→ t

/\/\

-ε■ \■/ \■/

←■■■■ T/2 ■■■■→←■■■■ T/2 ■■→

←■■■■■■■■■■ T ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■→

• EMF is sinusoidal

• Positive half: one direction of current

• Negative half: opposite direction of current

• This is why it's called ALTERNATING current

```

---

11.6 Important Parameters

Quantity Formula Unit

|---|---|---|

Peak EMF ε■ = NBAω Volt

RMS EMF ε_rms = ε■/√2 Volt

Frequency f = ω/(2π) Hz

Time Period T = 1/f = 2π/ω second

Instantaneous EMF ε = ε■ sin(ωt) Volt

---

11.7 Factors Affecting Peak EMF (ε■ = NBAω)

Factor Change Effect on ε■

|---|---|---|

N (number of turns) Double Doubles

B (magnetic field) Double Doubles

A (area of coil) Double Doubles

ω (angular velocity) Double Doubles

f (frequency) Double Doubles

---
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

PART 12: TRANSFORMER (BRIEF)

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

12.1 Principle

A transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. It transfers AC electrical energy from one
circuit to another through electromagnetic coupling, usually with a change in voltage/current levels.

---

12.2 Construction & Diagram

```

DIAGRAM:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

IRON CORE

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■

V■ ■■■ ■ PRIMARY SECONDARY ■ ■■■ V■

(Input) ■ ■ N■ turns N■ turns ■ ■ (Output)

I■ ■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■ I■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Φ — same through both coils (ideal)

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

```

---

12.3 Transformer Equations

EMF equation:
```

V■/V■ = N■/N■ = transformation ratio (k)

```

Current equation (ideal transformer):

```

I■/I■ = N■/N■ (current is inversely proportional to turns)

```

Power conservation (ideal):

```

V■ × I■ = V■ × I■ (Input power = Output power)

```
```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ Step-up transformer: N■ > N■ → V■ > V■ ■
■ Step-down transformer: N■ < N■ → V■ < V■ ■
■ ■
■ Key: Voltage steps up → Current steps down ■
■ (to conserve power: P = VI = constant) ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
```

---

12.4 Energy Losses in Transformer

Loss Type Cause Remedy

|---|---|---|

Copper loss (I²R) Resistance of coil wire Use thick copper wire

Iron/Core loss (Hysteresis) Repeated magnetization Use soft iron / silicon steel core

Eddy current loss Induced currents in core Use laminated core

Flux leakage Not all flux links secondary Use toroidal core design

Magnetostriction Vibration of core Good mechanical design

Efficiency: η = (Output Power / Input Power) × 100% ≈ 95-99% for large transformers

---
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

PART 13: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN EMI

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

13.1 The Core Principle

Lenz's Law is fundamentally a statement of energy conservation in electromagnetic induction:

Whenever an induced current is produced, the work done against the opposing force (Lenz's
force) appears as electrical energy in the circuit.

---

13.2 Energy Analysis — Sliding Rod

For the sliding rod on rails (rod moves with velocity v):

```

Energy Analysis:

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Input (Mechanical): Output (Electrical):

Work done by external Heat dissipated in R:

force against Lenz's

force: P_electrical = ε²/R = B²l²v²/R

F = BIl = B²l²v/R

P_mechanical = Fv = B²l²v²/R

P_mechanical = P_electrical ✓ Energy Conserved!

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
```

---

13.3 Why Can't We Have "Free Energy" from EMI?

Hypothetical violation: If induced current helped the magnet (instead of opposing it):

1. Magnet accelerates toward coil

2. Flux increases faster → More current

3. More current → More force → Magnet accelerates even more

4. Infinite energy from nowhere → Impossible!

Since Lenz's Law ensures opposition, we must always input energy to get output → No free energy!

---

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■

PART 14: COMPLETE FORMULA SHEET

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■■■
```
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

■ ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION — ALL FORMULAS ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
■■■■

■■

■ MAGNETIC FLUX ■

■ Φ = BA cos θ [Wb = T·m²] ■

■ For N turns: Flux linkage = NΦ [Wb-turns] ■

■■

■ FARADAY'S LAW ■

■ ε = -N(dΦ/dt) [V] ■

■ ε_avg = -N∆Φ/∆t = -N(Φ■ - Φ■)/∆t ■

■■

■ MOTIONAL EMF ■

■ ε = Blv [V] (v ⊥ B ⊥ l) ■

■ ε = Blv sin θ [V] (general case) ■

■ I = ε/R = Blv/R [A] ■

■ F (on rod) = BIl = B²l²v/R [N] ■

■■

■ ROTATING ROD ■

■ ε = ½Bωl² = πBfl² [V] ■

■■

■ SELF INDUCTANCE ■

■ NΦ = LI ■

■ ε = -L(dI/dt) [V] ■

■ L = µ■N²A/l = µ■n²V [H] (solenoid) ■

■ U = ½LI² [J] (energy stored) ■

■ u = B²/(2µ■) [J/m³] (energy density) ■

■■

■ MUTUAL INDUCTANCE ■

■ N■Φ■■ = MI■ ■

■ ε■ = -M(dI■/dt) [V] ■

■ M = µ■N■N■A/l [H] (coaxial solenoids) ■

■ M = k√(L■L■) [H] (k = coupling coefficient) ■

■■

■ AC GENERATOR ■

■ Φ = NBA cos(ωt) [Wb] ■

■ ε = ε■ sin(ωt) [V] ■

■ ε■ = NBAω = NBA(2πf) [V] ■

■ ε_rms = ε■/√2 [V] ■

■■

■ TRANSFORMER ■

■ V■/V■ = N■/N■ = I■/I■ ■

■ η = (V■I■)/(V■I■) × 100% ■

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PART 15: FULL DERIVATIONS

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Derivation 1: Motional EMF (ε = Blv)

Given: Conductor PQ of length l moves with velocity v perpendicular to magnetic field B (pointing into
page).

To prove: ε = Blv

Proof (Using Lorentz Force):

Consider a free positive charge q inside the moving conductor.

Force on charge: F = q(v × B)

Using right-hand rule: v is along x-axis (+x), B is along -z axis (into page), so:

F = q(v × B) is along +y axis (upward along the conductor)

Magnitude: F = qvB

This force moves charges from Q to P (positive charges accumulate at P, negative at Q).

This sets up an electric field E inside the conductor.

At equilibrium: Electric force = Magnetic force

qE = qvB → E = vB

EMF across PQ: ε = E × l = vBl

∴ ε = Blv ✓

Proof (Using Flux):

In time dt, rod moves distance dx = v dt

Area swept: dA = l × dx = lv dt

Change in flux: dΦ = B × dA = Blv dt

By Faraday's law: ε = dΦ/dt = Blv ✓

---

Derivation 2: Self Inductance of Solenoid (L = µ■n²Al)

Given: Solenoid of length l, N turns, cross-section area A, with current I.

Step 1: Field inside solenoid: B = µ■(N/l)I = µ■nI

Step 2: Flux through one turn: Φ = BA = µ■nIA

Step 3: Flux linkage = NΦ = N·µ■nIA = µ■(N/l)·N·IA = µ■N²A·I/l

Step 4: By definition, NΦ = LI:

L = µ■N²A/l
Since n = N/l → N = nl, so:

L = µ■(nl)²A/l = µ■n²lA = µ■n²V (where V = Al = volume)

∴ L = µ■N²A/l = µ■n²Al ✓

---

Derivation 3: Energy Stored in Inductor (U = ½LI²)

Given: Inductor of inductance L. Current increases from 0 to I.

Step 1: At instant when current is i, induced EMF:

ε = L(di/dt)

Step 2: Power absorbed by inductor (work done against back-EMF):

P = ε × i = Li(di/dt)

Step 3: Energy stored in time dt:

dU = P dt = Li di

Step 4: Total energy as current goes from 0 to I:

U = ∫■■ Li di = L·[i²/2]■■ = ½LI²

∴ U = ½LI² ✓

---

Derivation 4: EMF Equation of AC Generator

Given: Coil of N turns, area A, rotating with angular velocity ω in uniform B field.

Step 1: At t = 0, let coil be in the plane of B (coil normal ⊥ B), so initial flux = 0.

Actually, let us take t = 0 when coil normal is parallel to B (max flux):

Φ = NBA cos(ωt)
Step 2: By Faraday's law:

ε = -N dΦ/dt = -N d(BA cos ωt)/dt

Step 3: Differentiate:

ε = -NBA × (-ω sin ωt) = NBAω sin(ωt)

Step 4: Define peak EMF:

ε■ = NBAω

∴ ε = ε■ sin(ωt) ✓

---

Derivation 5: EMF of Rotating Rod (ε = ½Bωl²)

Given: Rod of length l rotating with angular velocity ω about one end, perpendicular to B.

Step 1: Consider element dx at distance x from pivot.

Velocity of element: v = ωx

Step 2: EMF in small element:

dε = B(v)(dx) = B(ωx)dx = Bωx dx

Step 3: Total EMF (integration, since elements are in series):

ε = ∫■■ Bωx dx = Bω∫■■ x dx = Bω[x²/2]■■ = Bωl²/2

∴ ε = ½Bωl² ✓

---

Derivation 6: Mutual Inductance of Coaxial Solenoids

Given: S■: N■ turns, length l. S■ (outer): N■ turns, area A, wound over S■.

Step 1: Current I■ in S■ → Field: B■ = µ■(N■/l)I■

Step 2: Flux through each turn of S■: Φ■■ = B■A = µ■(N■/l)I■A

Step 3: Total flux linkage of S■: N■Φ■■ = µ■N■N■AI■/l

Step 4: By definition: N■Φ■■ = MI■

∴ M = µ■N■N■A/l ✓

---

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PART 16: NUMERICALS — SOLVED

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Type 1: Magnetic Flux Problems

Problem 1 (Basic)

A rectangular coil of area 0.05 m² is placed in a uniform magnetic field of 2 T, with the plane of coil
making an angle of 60° with the field. Find the magnetic flux through the coil.

Given:

- A = 0.05 m²

-B=2T

- Angle between coil plane and B = 60°

- Therefore, θ (angle between area vector and B) = 90° - 60° = 30°

Formula: Φ = BA cos θ

Solution:

Φ = 2 × 0.05 × cos 30°

Φ = 0.1 × (√3/2)
Φ = 0.1 × 0.866

Φ = 0.0866 Wb ≈ 8.66 × 10■² Wb

■■ Common mistake: Using 60° instead of 30°. Always find angle between B and area vector
(normal to surface)!

---

Problem 2 (Board Level)

A circular coil of 100 turns, radius 0.1 m is placed in a uniform magnetic field of 1.5 T. The field is
perpendicular to the plane of the coil. Find the flux linkage.

Given:

- N = 100 turns, r = 0.1 m → A = πr² = π × 0.01 = 0.0314 m²

- B = 1.5 T, θ = 0° (B ⊥ plane means B ■ area vector)

Solution:

Φ = BA cos 0° = 1.5 × 0.0314 = 0.0471 Wb (per turn)

Flux linkage = NΦ = 100 × 0.0471 = 4.71 Wb-turns

---

Type 2: Faraday's Law Problems

Problem 3 (Basic)

A coil of 200 turns is placed in a magnetic field. The flux changes from 0.05 Wb to 0.02 Wb in 0.5 s.
Find the average induced EMF.

Given: N = 200, Φ■ = 0.05 Wb, Φ■ = 0.02 Wb, ∆t = 0.5 s

Formula: ε = -N(∆Φ/∆t)

Solution:

∆Φ = Φ■ - Φ■ = 0.02 - 0.05 = -0.03 Wb

ε = -200 × (-0.03)/0.5 = 200 × 0.06 = 12 V

(Magnitude = 12 V; negative sign indicates opposition by Lenz's law)

---

Problem 4 (Board)

A rectangular coil of area 20 cm² and resistance 10 Ω is placed in a field of 5 T with its plane
perpendicular to the field. The field is reduced to zero in 0.1 s. Find the induced current.

Given:

- A = 20 cm² = 20 × 10■■ m²

- R = 10 Ω

- B■ = 5 T, B■ = 0 T, ∆t = 0.1 s, θ = 0°, N = 1

Solution:

∆Φ = A(B■ - B■) = 20 × 10■■ × (0 - 5) = -0.01 Wb

ε =N ∆Φ/∆t = 1 × 0.01/0.1 = **0.1 V**

Induced current: I = ε/R = 0.1/10 = 0.01 A = 10 mA

---

Type 3: Motional EMF Problems

Problem 5 (Basic)

A conductor of length 2 m moves with velocity 3 m/s perpendicular to a magnetic field of 0.5 T. Find the
motional EMF.

Given: l = 2 m, v = 3 m/s, B = 0.5 T

Formula: ε = Blv

Solution:

ε = 0.5 × 2 × 3 = 3 V

---
Problem 6 (Sliding Rod)

Two rails separated by 0.5 m are connected by a resistance of 2 Ω at one end. A rod of negligible
resistance slides along the rails with velocity 4 m/s in a field B = 0.3 T perpendicular to the plane of rails.
Find: (a) induced EMF, (b) induced current, (c) force on rod, (d) power dissipated.

Given: l = 0.5 m, R = 2 Ω, v = 4 m/s, B = 0.3 T

Solution:

(a) ε = Blv = 0.3 × 0.5 × 4 = 0.6 V

(b) I = ε/R = 0.6/2 = 0.3 A

(c) Force on rod = BIl = 0.3 × 0.3 × 0.5 = 0.045 N (opposing motion)

(d) Power = ε × I = 0.6 × 0.3 = 0.18 W

Or: P = Fv = 0.045 × 4 = 0.18 W ✓ (Energy conservation check!)

---

Problem 7 (Rotating Rod — JEE/NEET Level)

A conducting rod of length 1 m rotates about one end with 5 revolutions per second in a uniform
magnetic field of 0.2 T, perpendicular to the plane of rotation. Find the EMF induced.

Given: l = 1 m, f = 5 Hz, B = 0.2 T

ω = 2πf = 2π × 5 = 10π rad/s

Formula: ε = ½Bωl²

Solution:

ε = ½ × 0.2 × 10π × 1²

ε = ½ × 0.2 × 10π

ε = π = 3.14 V

---

Type 4: Self Inductance Problems

Problem 8 (Basic)

A solenoid has 1000 turns, cross-sectional area 5 × 10■■ m², and length 0.5 m. Find its self
inductance. (µ■ = 4π × 10■■ H/m)

Given: N = 1000, A = 5 × 10■■ m², l = 0.5 m

Formula: L = µ■N²A/l

Solution:

L = (4π × 10■■) × (1000)² × (5 × 10■■) / 0.5

L = (4π × 10■■) × 10■ × 5 × 10■■ / 0.5

L = (4π × 10■■) × 10■ × 10■³

L = 4π × 10■■

L = 4π × 10■■ H ≈ 1.26 × 10■³ H = 1.26 mH

---

Problem 9 (Board)

The current in an inductor of 0.5 H changes from 2 A to 4 A in 0.1 s. Find the induced EMF.

Given: L = 0.5 H, ∆I = 4 - 2 = 2 A, ∆t = 0.1 s

Formula: ε = L(∆I/∆t)

Solution:

ε = 0.5 × 2/0.1 = 0.5 × 20 = 10 V

---

Problem 10 (Energy in Inductor)

Find the energy stored in an inductor of 2 H when current through it is 3 A.

Given: L = 2 H, I = 3 A

Formula: U = ½LI²
Solution:

U = ½ × 2 × 3² = ½ × 2 × 9 = 9 J

---

Type 5: Mutual Inductance Problems

Problem 11 (Board Level)

Two coils are wound on a common toroid. When current in the first coil changes at 200 A/s, an EMF of
0.4 V is induced in the second coil. Find the mutual inductance.

Given: dI■/dt = 200 A/s, ε■ = 0.4 V

Formula: ε■ = M(dI■/dt)

Solution:

M = ε■/(dI■/dt) = 0.4/200 = 2 × 10■³ H = 2 mH

---

Problem 12 (Coaxial Solenoids)

Two coaxial solenoids: S■ has 1200 turns, S■ has 800 turns, length 15 cm, area 10 cm². Find mutual
inductance.

Given: N■ = 1200, N■ = 800, l = 15 cm = 0.15 m, A = 10 cm² = 10■³ m²

Formula: M = µ■N■N■A/l

Solution:

M = (4π × 10■■) × 1200 × 800 × 10■³ / 0.15

M = (4π × 10■■) × 960000 × 10■³ / 0.15

M = (4π × 10■■) × 6.4 × 10■

M = 4π × 6.4 × 10■¹

M = 4 × 3.14 × 0.64

M = 8.04 × 10■³ H ≈ 8 mH
---

Type 6: AC Generator Problems

Problem 13 (Board)

An AC generator with coil of 100 turns, area 0.04 m², rotates at 50 Hz in a field of 0.05 T. Find peak
EMF and EMF at t = T/12.

Given: N = 100, A = 0.04 m², f = 50 Hz, B = 0.05 T

Solution:

ω = 2πf = 2π × 50 = 100π rad/s

Peak EMF: ε■ = NBAω = 100 × 0.05 × 0.04 × 100π

ε■ = 100 × 0.05 × 0.04 × 314.16

ε■ = 62.83 V ≈ 20π V

At t = T/12:

ωt = 2πf × T/12 = 2π × (1/T) × T/12 = 2π/12 = π/6 = 30°

ε = ε■ sin(30°) = 20π × 0.5 = 10π ≈ 31.4 V

---

Type 7: HOTS / JEE Level

Problem 14 (JEE Level)

A square loop of side a moves with velocity v into a region of uniform magnetic field B (perpendicular to
plane) as shown. Find the induced EMF, current, and force as (a) loop enters, (b) loop is fully inside, (c)
loop exits.

```

→→v ■■■■

■ ■→→ entering B-field region (B into page ⊗)

■■■■ ————————————B region————————————

```
Solution:

(a) Entering: One side (length a) of the loop is in B, moving with v.

EMF = Bav; Current = Bav/R; Force (opposing entry) = B²a²v/R

(b) Fully inside: No change in flux (entire loop in uniform B)

EMF = 0; Current = 0; Force = 0

(c) Exiting: Same as entering but opposite polarity

EMF = Bav; Current = Bav/R; Force (opposing exit) = B²a²v/R

This problem tests understanding of **when flux changes** — only at the boundaries!

---

Problem 15 (Conceptual — NEET Style)

A coil is removed from a magnetic field. Compare the induced EMF if: (a) removed slowly in 2 s, (b)
removed quickly in 0.2 s. Assume same change in flux in both cases.

Solution:

(a) ε_slow = ∆Φ/∆t = ∆Φ/2 = 0.5∆Φ

(b) ε_fast = ∆Φ/∆t = ∆Φ/0.2 = 5∆Φ

ε_fast / ε_slow = 10

The fast removal produces 10× more EMF — because rate of change is 10× higher.

Key concept: **Same ∆Φ, different time → different EMF!**

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PART 17: CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING

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17.1 Why Does a Changing B Field Produce EMF?

Deep explanation:

Maxwell's equations (advanced topic) show that a changing magnetic field creates an electric field —
even in free space where there's no conductor! When a conductor is placed in this induced electric field,
free electrons experience a force → current flows.

This is why statically induced EMF occurs even without conductor motion.

---

17.2 Why Does Conductor Motion Produce EMF?

When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, the free electrons inside the conductor also move (with
the conductor). These moving electrons experience Lorentz force F = qv × B, which pushes them
along the conductor → charge separation → EMF.

---

17.3 Self Induction — The Electromagnetic Inertia

Mechanical analogy:

Mechanics Electromagnetics

|---|---|

Mass (m) Inductance (L)

Velocity (v) Current (I)

Force (F) EMF (ε)

KE = ½mv² Energy = ½LI²

F = m(dv/dt) ε = L(dI/dt)

Inertia opposes change in v L opposes change in I

Just as a heavy object is hard to start moving (inertia), a high-L inductor is hard to change current
through.

---

17.4 Why Can't Current Change Instantaneously in an Inductor?

If dI/dt were infinite (instantaneous change), then ε = L(dI/dt) would be infinite, requiring infinite voltage.
This is physically impossible.

That's why:

- A switch opening suddenly in an inductor circuit causes a spark (large voltage spike)

- In power supplies, inductors filter sudden changes in current

---

17.5 Memory Tricks and Mnemonics

For Fleming's Rules:

- Right hand → Rotating generator → GeneRator (Right = Right = geneRated current)

- Left hand → Lorentz force → Motor (Left = Lorentz)

- FBI with right hand: Forefinger = B (field), thuMb = Motion, Middle finger = Current (I)

For Lenz's Law:

- "COIN" trick: If flux is increasing → induced current creates field to oppose → think of a coin being
pushed away (Lenz's repels)

For Faraday's Law:

- "Change Produces" — Change in flux → Produces EMF

- More turns = More EMF (ε = NdΦ/dt → N multiplies the effect)

For Self Inductance:

- L opposes change (just like a lazy person opposes change in their routine!)

- L ∝ N² (double turns → 4× inductance — squared!)

For Transformer:

- "High voltage, low current; low voltage, high current" — they must trade off to conserve power!

- Step-UP in voltage → Step-DOWN in current (and vice versa)

---

17.6 Commonly Confused Concepts

Confusion Clarification

|---|---|

EMF vs Current EMF is induced even in open circuit; current flows only in closed circuit

Flux vs EMF Constant flux → zero EMF; CHANGING flux → induced EMF

L vs M L: self (one coil); M: mutual (two coils)

Step-up vs Step-down transformer Based on N■/N■ ratio (>1 or <1)

Fleming's Left vs Right Hand Left = Motor (force on conductor); Right = Generator (direction of current)

Lenz's law direction Current opposes change in flux, not the flux itself

---

17.7 Real-Life Applications — Deeper Understanding

Induction Cooking:

A rapidly changing current (20-100 kHz) in a flat coil creates a rapidly changing magnetic field. This
induces eddy currents in the ferromagnetic pot. These currents flow against the resistance of the pot →
heat generated directly in the pot. The glass surface stays cool because it's non-magnetic and
non-conducting.

Wireless Phone Charging:

A coil in the charger base generates a changing magnetic field. A coil in the phone case picks up this
field (mutual induction). The secondary voltage is rectified to DC for the battery. Works typically at
~100-205 kHz.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging):

Rapidly pulsed magnetic fields induce signals in hydrogen nuclei in body tissue. The returning signal is
detected by receiver coils using electromagnetic induction principles.
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PART 18: QUICK REVISION NOTES

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■ ONE-SHOT QUICK REVISION ■

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■■

■ EMI = Production of EMF due to changing magnetic flux ■

■■

■ Φ = BA cos θ [Wb] (max when θ=0°, zero when θ=90°) ■

■■

■ Faraday's Law: ε = -N dΦ/dt ■

■ • EMF exists whenever flux changes ■

■ • Magnitude ∝ rate of change of flux ■

■ • Negative sign → Lenz's Law ■

■■

■ Lenz's Law: Induced current OPPOSES the change in flux ■

■ → Conservation of energy in EMI ■

■■

■ Motional EMF: ε = Blv (conductor moving in B) ■

■ Rotating Rod: ε = ½Bωl² ■

■■
■ Self Inductance: ε = -L dI/dt ■

■ L(solenoid) = µ■N²A/l U = ½LI² ■

■■

■ Mutual Inductance: ε■ = -M dI■/dt ■

■ M(coaxial) = µ■N■N■A/l M = k√(L■L■) ■

■■

■ Energy density of B field: u = B²/(2µ■) ■

■■

■ AC Generator: ε = ε■ sin(ωt), ε■ = NBAω ■

■■

■ Transformer: V■/V■ = N■/N■ = I■/I■ ■

■■

■ Eddy Currents: ■

■ • Induced in bulk conductors ■

■ • Cause heating (disadvantage) ■

■ • Minimized by lamination ■

■ • Used in: braking, furnace, cooktop, detector ■

■■

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Important Definitions at a Glance

Term Definition

|---|---|

Magnetic Flux Φ = BA cos θ; measure of field lines through a surface

EMI Production of EMF due to changing magnetic flux

Faraday's Law ε = -N dΦ/dt

Lenz's Law Induced current opposes the change causing it

 Motional EMF EMF due to conductor motion in B field: ε = Blv

Self Inductance (L) Property by which coil opposes change in its own current

Mutual Inductance (M) EMF in one coil due to change in current in another

Eddy Currents Currents induced in bulk conductors by changing B

AC Generator Converts mechanical to electrical energy via EMI

Transformer Transfers AC energy between circuits via mutual induction

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PART 19: EXAM QUESTIONS

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1-Mark Questions

1. State Lenz's Law.

2. What is the SI unit of self inductance?

3. Write the formula for motional EMF.

4. What is the SI unit of magnetic flux?

5. State the condition for maximum and minimum flux through a surface.

6. Define 1 Henry.

7. What is the peak EMF of an AC generator?

8. What are eddy currents? Why are they called so?

9. What is the effect of inserting a ferromagnetic core in a solenoid on its self-inductance?

10. State Fleming's Right Hand Rule.

Answers:
1. The direction of induced current is always such as to oppose the change in flux that causes it.

2. Henry (H)

3. ε = Blv

4. Weber (Wb)

5. Max when θ = 0° (B ⊥ plane); Min (zero) when θ = 90° (B ■ plane)

6. Self inductance is 1 H when current change of 1 A/s induces EMF of 1 V.

7. ε■ = NBAω

8. Currents induced in bulk conductors due to changing flux; swirl like eddies in water.

9. Self inductance increases (L = µ■µ■N²A/l, µ■ >> 1)

10. Stretch right hand: forefinger → B direction, thumb → motion direction, middle finger → induced
current direction.

---

2-Mark Questions

1. A coil has 500 turns. Flux changes from 10■² to 10■³ Wb in 0.1 s. Find induced EMF.

2. Distinguish between self and mutual induction.

3. Why are transformer cores laminated?

4. State and explain Faraday's First Law of EMI.

5. A conductor of length 1 m moves at 2 m/s in a field of 3 T. Find motional EMF and explain its cause.

Answer to Q1:

ε = -N(∆Φ/∆t) = -500 × (10■³ - 10■²)/0.1 = -500 × (-9 × 10■³)/0.1 = 500 × 0.09 = 45 V

---

3-Mark Questions

1. Derive the expression for self inductance of a solenoid.

2. Using Lenz's Law, explain how energy is conserved when a magnet is pushed into a coil.

3. Explain the working of an AC generator with a labeled diagram.

4. Derive motional EMF (ε = Blv) using Lorentz force.

5. What are eddy currents? Give two applications and two disadvantages.

---

5-Mark Questions

1. (a) State Faraday's laws of EMI. (b) Derive the EMF equation of an AC generator. (c) A generator has
50 turns, area 0.025 m², field 0.5 T. If it rotates at 60 Hz, find peak and RMS EMF.

2. (a) Define self and mutual inductance. (b) Derive L for a solenoid and M for two coaxial solenoids. (c)
Two coaxial solenoids: N■ = 500, N■ = 200, length = 40 cm, area = 4 cm². Find M.

3. (a) Explain the construction and working of an AC generator. (b) Draw labeled diagram. (c) Why is
the output AC and not DC? How can DC be obtained from a generator?

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PART 20: 50 IMPORTANT MCQs

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Instructions: Choose the best option. Answers at end.

1. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is:

(a) Production of current by a static magnetic field

(b) Production of current by a changing magnetic field

(c) Production of magnetic field by a current

(d) Production of electric field by a charge

2. The SI unit of magnetic flux is:

(a) Tesla (b) Ampere (c) Weber (d) Henry

3. If the number of turns of a coil is doubled, keeping the flux constant, the induced EMF:

(a) Becomes half (b) Becomes double (c) Remains same (d) Becomes four times

4. A coil with N turns and area A is held perpendicular to a uniform field B. When turned through 90°,
the average EMF is:

(a) NBA/t (b) NBAt (c) NBA/2t (d) 2NBA/t

5. The self inductance of a solenoid is proportional to:

(a) N (b) N² (c) 1/N (d) 1/N²

6. Energy stored in an inductor L carrying current I is:

(a) LI² (b) ½LI (c) ½LI² (d) 2LI²

7. A conducting rod moves perpendicular to a magnetic field. The induced EMF is:

(a) ε = BlI (b) ε = Blv (c) ε = Bv/l (d) ε = B/lv

8. According to Lenz's Law, the induced current:

(a) Aids the change in flux (b) Opposes the change in flux

(c) Has no relation to flux (d) Is always clockwise

9. The mutual inductance between two coils depends on:

(a) Current in primary (b) EMF in secondary

(c) Geometry and relative position (d) Resistance of coils

10. The peak EMF of an AC generator is given by:

(a) NBAω (b) NBA/ω (c) ω/NBA (d) N/BAω

11. In an ideal transformer, if V■ = 2V■, then:

(a) I■ = 2I■ (b) I■ = I■/2 (c) I■ = I■ (d) I■ = 4I■

12. Eddy currents are minimized by:

(a) Using thick iron core (b) Laminating the core

(c) Increasing frequency (d) Increasing current

13. The dimensional formula of self inductance is:

(a) [MLT■²A■²] (b) [ML²T■²A■²] (c) [ML²T■¹A■²] (d) [MLT■¹A■²]

14. If flux through a coil is Φ = 4t² + 3t + 2 Wb, the EMF at t = 2 s is:

(a) 19 V (b) 11 V (c) 35 V (d) -19 V

15. The coupling coefficient k between two coils has the range:

(a) 0 ≤ k ≤ 0.5 (b) 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 (c) 0 ≤ k ≤ ∞ (d) -1 ≤ k ≤ 1

16. A rotating rod of length l has one end at the center. If it rotates with angular velocity ω in field B, the
EMF is:

(a) Bωl² (b) ½Bωl² (c) 2Bωl² (d) ¼Bωl²

17. In an AC generator, EMF is maximum when the plane of the coil is:

(a) Perpendicular to B (b) Parallel to B (c) At 45° to B (d) At 30° to B

18. The back EMF in a self inductor opposes:

(a) Current itself (b) Change in current (c) Voltage applied (d) Resistance

19. 1 Henry is equal to:

(a) 1 V/A (b) 1 Ω·s (c) 1 V·s/A (d) Both b and c

20. The energy density in a magnetic field B is:

(a) B²/µ■ (b) B²/(2µ■) (c) µ■B² (d) µ■B²/2

21. Two coils have M = 0.01 H. EMF induced in coil 2 when current in coil 1 changes at 500 A/s:

(a) 50 V (b) 5 V (c) 0.5 V (d) 500 V

22. Flux linkage through a coil is 4 Wb. If 2 A current flows, self inductance is:

(a) 8 H (b) 2 H (c) 0.5 H (d) 4 H

23. An inductor of 1 H stores 50 J of energy. Current through it is:

(a) 5 A (b) 10 A (c) 50 A (d) 100 A

24. Lenz's Law is a consequence of:

(a) Faraday's Law (b) Ampere's Law (c) Conservation of Energy (d) Gauss's Law

25. If the area of a coil in a generator is doubled, the peak EMF:

(a) Doubles (b) Halves (c) Quadruples (d) Remains same

26. Mutual inductance of two coaxial solenoids increases when:

(a) They are moved apart (b) A ferromagnetic core is inserted

(c) Frequency is increased (d) Resistance is increased

27. The current in a closed coil moving in a uniform magnetic field is:

(a) Maximum (b) Zero (c) Minimum (d) Alternating

28. In induction cooktop, the base remains cool because:

(a) B field is weak near the base

(b) Base is insulated

(c) Base is non-magnetic and non-conducting (no eddy currents)

(d) Eddy currents don't generate heat

29. A transformer has efficiency 90%. Input power = 100 W. Output power is:

(a) 100 W (b) 90 W (c) 111 W (d) 10 W

30. If the speed of a conductor moving in a magnetic field is doubled:

(a) Induced current is halved (b) Induced EMF doubles

(c) Induced EMF is halved (d) No change in EMF

31. The flux through a coil changes from 6 Wb to 1 Wb in 0.1 s. If N=100, EMF is:

(a) 50 V (b) 500 V (c) 0.5 V (d) 5000 V

32. Fleming's Right Hand Rule is used to find the direction of:

(a) Force on current-carrying conductor (b) Induced current in a generator

(c) Magnetic field around a wire (d) Torque on a current loop

33. The self inductance of a solenoid is doubled if:

(a) Length is doubled (b) Area is doubled

(c) Number of turns is increased by √2 (d) Area is halved

34. An AC generator produces maximum current when:

(a) Coil is parallel to B (coil ■ B) (b) Coil is perpendicular to B

(c) Coil is at 45° to B (d) Coil is rotating in the field

35. The phenomenon by which eddy current loss is reduced in transformers is called:

(a) Insulation (b) Lamination (c) Cooling (d) Grounding

36. If M = 2 H and dI/dt in primary = 3 A/s, the EMF in secondary is:

(a) 6/2 = 3 V (b) 6 V (c) 2/3 V (d) 9 V

37. For a solenoid of N turns, the self inductance L and the total flux linkage NΦ are related as:

(a) NΦ = L/I (b) NΦ = LI (c) NΦ = L²I (d) NΦ = √(LI)

38. The efficiency of a transformer is maximum when:

(a) Copper losses = Iron losses (b) Copper losses > Iron losses

(c) Iron losses > Copper losses (d) Copper losses = 0

39. In Faraday's experiment, if magnet is stationary and coil moves toward it:

(a) No EMF induced (b) EMF is induced

(c) Only B-field changes (d) Cannot determine

40. If the self inductance of a coil is 5 mH and current changes from 0 to 10 A in 0.2 s, the induced EMF
is:

(a) 0.25 V (b) 1000 V (c) 25 V (d) 0.025 V

41. The unit of flux density (B) in terms of Wb is:

(a) Wb/m (b) Wb·m (c) Wb/m² (d) Wb·m²

42. Changing the orientation of a coil in a magnetic field is an example of:

(a) Dynamically induced EMF (b) Statically induced EMF

(c) Self induction (d) Mutual induction

43. The device that converts AC of one voltage to another voltage is:
(a) Motor (b) Generator (c) Transformer (d) Inductor

44. An inductor acts as a short circuit for:

(a) High frequency AC (b) Low frequency AC

(c) DC (d) Both b and c

45. In the expression ε = ε■ sin(ωt), when ωt = π/2, the EMF is:

(a) 0 (b) ε■/2 (c) ε■ (d) ε■/√2

46. The RMS value of AC generator EMF is:

(a) ε■/2 (b) ε■√2 (c) ε■/√2 (d) 2ε■

47. Magnetic flux through a closed surface is:

(a) Positive (b) Negative (c) Zero (d) Infinite

48. Self inductance depends on:

(a) Current (b) EMF (c) Only geometry and medium (d) Resistance

49. Lenz's Law determines the _____ of induced current:

(a) Magnitude (b) Frequency (c) Direction (d) Phase

50. When a superconductor is placed in a magnetic field and cooled below its critical temperature, it
expels all magnetic flux. This is known as:

(a) Lenz Effect (b) Meissner Effect (c) Hall Effect (d) Faraday Effect

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MCQ Answers:

Q Ans Q Ans Q Ans Q Ans Q Ans

|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|

1 b 11 b 21 b 31 b 41 c

2 c 12 b 22 b 32 b 42 a

3 b 13 b 23 b 33 b 43 c
 4 a 14 d 24 c 34 a 44 c

5 b 15 b 25 a 35 b 45 c

6 c 16 b 26 b 36 b 46 c

7 b 17 b 27 b 37 b 47 c

8 b 18 b 28 c 38 a 48 c

9 c 19 d 29 b 39 b 49 c

10 a 20 b 30 b 40 a 50 b

MCQ Explanations for Tricky Ones:

Q4: Coil goes from ⊥ B (max flux = NBA) to ■ B (zero flux). ∆Φ = NBA. EMF = N∆Φ/∆t = NBA/t ✓

Q14: Φ = 4t² + 3t + 2; dΦ/dt = 8t + 3; at t=2: dΦ/dt = 16+3 = 19; ε = -dΦ/dt = -19 V

Q23: U = ½LI² → 50 = ½×1×I² → I² = 100 → I = 10 A

Q40: ε = L(∆I/∆t) = 5×10■³ × 10/0.2 = 5×10■³ × 50 = 0.25 V

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PART 21: ASSERTION-REASON QUESTIONS (20)

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Instructions:

- (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

- (b) Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A

- (c) A is true, R is false

- (d) A is false, R is true

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Q1.

Assertion (A): A coil moving with constant velocity in a uniform magnetic field does not have an
induced EMF.

Reason (R): For EMF to be induced, the flux through the coil must change.

Answer: (a) — Both true. If the coil moves in a uniform B with all sides cutting field lines equally (or fully
inside), net flux doesn't change → no EMF. R correctly explains A.

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Q2.

Assertion (A): Lenz's Law is an application of the law of conservation of energy.

Reason (R): The induced current always flows in such a direction as to oppose the cause producing it.

Answer: (a) — Both true. The opposition (R) ensures that external work must be done to maintain the
motion, which converts to electrical energy, conserving energy. R explains A.

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Q3.

Assertion (A): The self inductance of a solenoid increases if we insert a ferromagnetic core inside it.

Reason (R): L = µ■µ■N²A/l. As µ■ >> 1 for ferromagnetic materials, L increases.

Answer: (a) — Both true, R correctly explains A.

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Q4.

Assertion (A): A transformer cannot work on DC.

Reason (R): For a transformer, the EMF is induced by changing magnetic flux. DC produces constant
(unchanging) flux, so no EMF is induced in the secondary.
Answer: (a) — Both true. R correctly explains A.

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Q5.

Assertion (A): The induced EMF in a rotating rod (pivoted at one end) is ε = ½Bωl².

Reason (R): The induced EMF is due to the motional EMF (ε = Blv) where different parts of the rod
have different velocities.

Answer: (a) — Both true. Since v = ωx varies along the rod, integration gives ε = ½Bωl².

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Q6.

Assertion (A): Eddy currents are useful in induction furnaces but harmful in transformers.

Reason (R): Eddy currents generate heat. This is useful for melting metals but reduces efficiency in
transformers.

Answer: (a) — Both true, R correctly explains A.

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Q7.

Assertion (A): The direction of induced current in a coil can be determined by either Lenz's Law or
Fleming's Right Hand Rule.

Reason (R): Both Lenz's Law and Fleming's Right Hand Rule are based on the same physical principle
— Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction.

Answer: (b) — Both are true. However, they give the same result through different approaches. Lenz's
Law is the consequence of Faraday's Law, while Fleming's rule is a practical mnemonic. R is not the
direct explanation of A.

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Q8.

Assertion (A): An inductor prevents sudden changes in current.

Reason (R): An inductor stores energy in its magnetic field.

Answer: (b) — Both true. An inductor opposes change in current (ε = -L dI/dt), which is because it
stores energy. But the energy storage (R) isn't the direct reason for opposing sudden changes — the
oppositional EMF is the direct reason. R is true but doesn't correctly explain A.

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Q9.

Assertion (A): Magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero.

Reason (R): Magnetic monopoles do not exist.

Answer: (a) — Both true. Since there are no magnetic monopoles, all B field lines form closed loops
and the net flux through any closed surface is zero (Gauss's Law for Magnetism).

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Q10.

Assertion (A): In a step-up transformer, the current in the secondary is less than in the primary.

Reason (R): In an ideal transformer, input power equals output power. Since V■ > V■, we have I■ <
I■.

Answer: (a) — Both true, R correctly explains A.

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Q11.

Assertion (A): The peak EMF of an AC generator doubles if the speed of rotation is doubled.

Reason (R): ε■ = NBAω; since ω doubles, ε■ doubles.

Answer: (a) — Both true, R correctly explains A.

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Q12.
Assertion (A): Two coils wound on the same core have very high mutual inductance.

Reason (R): When wound on the same core, almost all flux from one coil links the other (high coupling
coefficient k ≈ 1).

Answer: (a) — Both true, R correctly explains A.

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Q13.

Assertion (A): The energy stored in a magnetic field is analogous to kinetic energy in mechanics.

Reason (R): U = ½LI² has the same form as KE = ½mv², with L analogous to mass and I analogous to
velocity.

Answer: (a) — Both true, R explains A.

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Q14.

Assertion (A): When two coils have their axes perpendicular, mutual inductance between them is zero.

Reason (R): No flux from coil 1 passes through coil 2 when their axes are perpendicular.

Answer: (a) — Both true, R explains A.

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Q15.

Assertion (A): The brakes of modern trains use electromagnetic damping (magnetic braking), which is
more effective at high speeds.

Reason (R): The braking force in magnetic braking is F = B²l²v/R, which increases with speed v.

Answer: (a) — Both true. The higher the speed, the greater the eddy currents and hence the braking
force. R explains A.

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Q16.

Assertion (A): If a coil is placed parallel to a uniform magnetic field, the flux is zero and no EMF is
induced.

Reason (R): Flux = BA cos θ = 0 when θ = 90° (field parallel to coil plane means normal to field).

Answer: (c) — A is PARTIALLY true (flux IS zero), but if the coil is placed parallel to field and remains
stationary, EMF = 0 too. If it's instantaneously there with no change, no EMF. However, A says "no EMF
is induced" which is correct only if flux is not changing. R is true. A is true for steady state. Both actually
correct → (a). [Note: This depends on interpretation.]

Better analysis: When coil plane ■ B, flux = 0 AND rate of change of flux = maximum (it's passing
through zero). So EMF is actually maximum at this point! A is FALSE. Answer: (d)

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Q17.

Assertion (A): An ideal inductor does not dissipate energy.

Reason (R): An ideal inductor has zero resistance, so no I²R heating occurs.

Answer: (a) — Both true, R explains A.

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Q18.

Assertion (A): When a conductor is moved in the plane of a magnetic field (parallel to B), no EMF is
induced.

Reason (R): EMF = Blv sin θ. When conductor moves parallel to B (or perpendicular to the motion
being parallel to B), θ = 0°, so EMF = 0.

Answer: (a) — Both true, R explains A.

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Q19.

Assertion (A): The mutual inductance M between two coils satisfies M ≤ √(L■L■).
Reason (R): M = k√(L■L■) where 0 ≤ k ≤ 1.

Answer: (a) — Both true, R explains A.

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Q20.

Assertion (A): The back EMF of an inductor and the applied EMF are equal and opposite in a DC
circuit at steady state.

Reason (R): At steady state, dI/dt = 0, so back EMF = L(dI/dt) = 0.

Answer: (d) — A is FALSE (back EMF = 0 at steady state, not equal to applied EMF). R is TRUE. At
steady state, back EMF is zero, and the applied EMF drives current against only the resistance.

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PART 22: CASE STUDY QUESTIONS (20)

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Case Study 1: Faraday's Discovery

Michael Faraday conducted a historic experiment in 1831. He wound two coils on an iron ring. One coil
(primary) was connected to a battery through a switch. The other (secondary) was connected to a
galvanometer. He observed that the galvanometer deflected only when the switch was opened or
closed, not when steady current flowed.

Q1. Why does the galvanometer deflect only during opening/closing and not when current is steady?

Answer: During opening/closing, current in primary changes → flux changes → EMF induced in
secondary. During steady state, no change in flux → no EMF.
Q2. What would happen if an AC source replaced the battery in the primary? Would the galvanometer
show continuous deflection?

Answer: Yes. AC continuously changes → flux continuously changes → continuously induced EMF in
secondary → galvanometer shows continuous alternating deflection. This is the principle of a
transformer!

Q3. If the iron ring is replaced by air, how would the induced EMF change?

Answer: EMF would decrease because iron has high µ■, which concentrates the flux and increases
the coupling between the two coils. Air has µ■ = 1.

Q4. Name the principle on which this experiment is based.

Answer: Mutual Induction (Faraday's Law of EMI).

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Case Study 2: Power Transmission and Transformers

Electricity is generated at power stations at around 11 kV. Before transmission over long distances, it is
stepped up to 220 kV or more using step-up transformers. At the receiving end, step-down transformers
reduce it to 33 kV, then 11 kV, then 440 V for industrial use, and finally 220 V for homes.

Q1. Why is electricity transmitted at high voltage?

Answer: At high voltage, current is low (P = VI, P constant). Lower current means less I²R heating loss
in transmission lines. More efficient transmission.

Q2. A transformer steps up 11 kV to 220 kV. If the primary has 500 turns, how many turns does the
secondary have?

Answer: N■/N■ = V■/V■ → N■ = 500 × (220/11) = 500 × 20 = 10,000 turns

Q3. If the primary current is 100 A, find the secondary current (ideal transformer).

Answer: I■ = I■ × N■/N■ = 100 × 500/10000 = 5 A

Q4. What type of energy loss occurs in the transformer core? How is it minimized?

Answer: Eddy current losses and hysteresis losses. Minimized by using laminated silicon steel core.

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Case Study 3: Induction Cooktop

An induction cooktop uses high-frequency alternating current (typically 20-100 kHz) flowing through a
flat coil beneath a glass-ceramic surface. This creates a rapidly oscillating magnetic field. When a
ferromagnetic (iron or steel) cooking vessel is placed on the surface, eddy currents are induced in the
vessel's base. These circulate currents generate heat within the vessel itself.

Q1. Why doesn't the glass-ceramic surface of the cooktop get hot?

Answer: Glass-ceramic is non-magnetic and non-conducting, so no eddy currents are induced in it.
Only the vessel heats up.

Q2. Why can't aluminum pots be used on induction cooktops (unless specially designed)?

Answer: Traditional aluminum is non-ferromagnetic. The induction field induces very weak currents in
it. (Note: Some aluminum pots have a ferromagnetic base layer that works.)

Q3. Why is a high frequency (20-100 kHz) used instead of 50 Hz?

Answer: Higher frequency → faster changing flux → larger induced EMF → stronger eddy currents →
more heating. Also allows smaller coil size.

Q4. An induction cooktop has 80% efficiency. If 1200 W is drawn from the mains, what is the heat
generated in the vessel?

Answer: Heat = 80% × 1200 = 960 W

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Case Study 4: AC Generator in a Power Plant

A large power plant has AC generators (alternators) that produce electricity at 50 Hz. Each generator
has a large rotor (with electromagnets) and a stationary stator (with copper coils). The rotor is driven by
turbines (steam, water, or gas). As the rotor spins, the changing magnetic field induces EMF in the
stator coils.

Q1. Why do power stations use AC generators instead of DC generators?

Answer: AC can be stepped up/down using transformers for efficient long-distance transmission. DC
cannot be easily transformed, making transmission very inefficient.

Q2. A generator produces EMF ε = 311 sin(100πt) V. Find the peak EMF, RMS EMF, and frequency.

Answer:
- Peak EMF: ε■ = 311 V

- RMS EMF: ε_rms = 311/√2 = 220 V

- ω = 100π → f = ω/2π = 100π/2π = 50 Hz

Q3. What changes would double the peak EMF of this generator (without changing speed)?

Answer: Double the number of turns N, OR double the area A of the coil, OR double the magnetic field
B. (ε■ = NBAω)

Q4. At what angle does the coil produce (a) maximum EMF, (b) zero EMF?

Answer:

(a) Maximum EMF: when coil plane is parallel to B (flux is changing fastest)

(b) Zero EMF: when coil plane is perpendicular to B (flux is at maximum, rate of change = 0)

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Case Study 5: Metal Detectors

Airport security uses metal detectors based on electromagnetic induction. A transmitter coil generates
an alternating magnetic field. When a metal object enters this field, eddy currents are induced in the
metal. These eddy currents produce their own secondary magnetic field, which is detected by a receiver
coil. The change in the detected field triggers the alarm.

Q1. Why does the metal detector NOT trigger for non-metallic objects like plastic or wood?

Answer: Non-metals are poor conductors and non-magnetic. No eddy currents are induced in them →
no secondary field → no detection.

Q2. Why is a high-frequency AC used in metal detectors?

Answer: Higher frequency → more rapidly changing flux → more intense eddy currents → stronger
detectable secondary field → more sensitive detection.

Q3. A certain metal detector generates B = B■ sin(2π × 10000 × t). By which law are the eddy currents
in the metal object produced?

Answer: Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction — changing B induces EMF → drives eddy
currents.

Q4. What determines the depth to which a metal detector can detect metals?
Answer: The strength of the primary B field, frequency, conductivity of the metal, and sensitivity of the
receiver coil.

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PART 23: COMPETENCY-BASED QUESTIONS (10)

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Q1. A student holds a circular copper ring and drops a bar magnet through it. Describe what happens to
the ring's motion. What happens if the ring were made of wood instead?

Answer: As the magnet falls through the copper ring, changing flux induces eddy currents in the ring.
These eddy currents create a magnetic field opposing the motion (Lenz's Law). This slows the ring's
"apparent fall" relative to the magnet (or creates an opposing interaction). For wood: no eddy currents
→ no opposition → the magnet and ring interact gravitationally only. The wood ring would not be
affected electromagnetically.

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Q2. Two identical coils are placed coaxially. When they are moved closer to each other, what happens
to their mutual inductance? If a diamagnetic material is placed between them, will M increase or
decrease?

Answer: When moved closer: M increases (more flux linkage). For diamagnetic material: µ■ slightly
less than 1 → M slightly decreases (diamagnets weakly repel flux).

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Q3. An engineer wants to reduce the response time of a circuit (want current to build up quickly).
Should they use a high or low inductance? Justify.
Answer: Low inductance. High L means stronger back-EMF for any given dI/dt, which slows the
build-up of current. Low L means less back-EMF → current builds up quickly. Time constant of an RL
circuit is τ = L/R; smaller L → smaller τ → faster response.

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Q4. Why does a spark sometimes appear when you pull a plug out of a socket quickly? Relate this to
electromagnetic induction.

Answer: Electrical appliances contain inductors (motors, transformers). When the circuit is broken
suddenly (by pulling the plug), the inductor opposes the sudden decrease in current (Lenz's law). The
rapidly changing current induces a very large back-EMF (ε = L×dI/dt; very large dI/dt → large ε). This
large voltage ionizes the air between the contacts, causing a spark.

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Q5. A maglev train uses electromagnetic levitation and braking. Explain how Lenz's Law is responsible
for both levitation and braking.

Answer:

- Levitation: Powerful superconducting magnets on the train induce currents in aluminum coils on the
track. By Lenz's Law, these currents create a magnetic force that opposes the flux change (the
approach of the train magnet), pushing the train upward — levitation.

- Braking: When the train needs to stop, its speed creates a changing flux relative to track coils. By
Lenz's Law, induced currents create a retarding force — opposing the forward motion. No mechanical
contact needed.

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Q6. A long solenoid with N turns is cut in half, creating two shorter solenoids. How does the self
inductance of each half compare to the original?

Answer: L = µ■N²A/l. Each half has N/2 turns and l/2 length:

L_half = µ■(N/2)²A/(l/2) = µ■(N²/4)A × (2/l) = µ■N²A/(2l) = L/2

Each half has L/2 of the original inductance.

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Q7. Design a simple experiment to demonstrate that the direction of induced current depends on the
direction of change in flux, not the flux itself.

Answer:

1. Take a coil connected to a galvanometer

2. Move a bar magnet (N-pole facing coil) toward the coil → observe deflection in one direction

3. Hold magnet stationary inside the coil → observe zero deflection (even though flux is present)

4. Move magnet away from coil → observe deflection in opposite direction

5. Repeat with S-pole facing coil → compare directions

Conclusion: Only CHANGE in flux induces current; direction depends on whether flux is increasing or
decreasing.

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Q8. The Earth's magnetic field strength is about 5 × 10■■ T. Estimate the EMF induced in a conducting
aircraft wing of span 60 m flying at 900 km/h, assuming the wing moves perpendicular to the vertical
component of Earth's field (B_v ≈ 3 × 10■■ T).

Answer:

v = 900 km/h = 900 × 1000/3600 = 250 m/s

l = 60 m

B_v = 3 × 10■■ T

ε = B_v × l × v = 3×10■■ × 60 × 250 = 3×10■■ × 15000 = 0.45 V

This explains why aircraft can develop small EMFs in their wings due to Earth's field!

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Q9. A student claims: "If we use a superconducting wire (zero resistance) for the rails and rod in the
sliding rod experiment, we can extract energy without any force being needed." Is this correct? Explain.

Answer: This claim is INCORRECT. Even with zero resistance, Lenz's Law still applies. An induced
current flows and creates a retarding force on the rod (F = BIl). Since R = 0, I = ε/R → infinite current...
but in practice, this means the current would instantly build up until its magnetic force exactly opposes
the applied force. The superconducting loop would store energy in its magnetic field, not deliver it freely.
Conservation of energy still holds.

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Q10. A conducting ring is placed near an electromagnet that is powered by an AC source. The ring is
not connected to any circuit. Will it be repelled from the electromagnet? What is this phenomenon
called?

Answer: Yes! The AC in the electromagnet creates a continuously changing B field. By Faraday's law,
EMF is induced in the ring → eddy currents flow → by Lenz's Law, these currents create an opposing B
field → the ring experiences a repulsive force. This is called electromagnetic levitation or induction
levitation. It is the principle behind levitation demonstrations and some industrial applications (levitating
conveyor systems).

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PART 24: PREVIOUS YEAR BOARD QUESTIONS (25)

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(Questions styled after actual CBSE Class 12 board exams)

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PYQ 1 (1 mark, 2020): What is the SI unit of coefficient of mutual inductance?

Answer: Henry (H)

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PYQ 2 (1 mark, 2019): The magnetic flux linked with a coil is given by Φ = 5t² + 3t + 16 Wb. Find the
EMF at t = 4 s.

Answer: dΦ/dt = 10t + 3; at t=4: dΦ/dt = 43; ε = -43 V (magnitude = 43 V)

---

PYQ 3 (2 marks, 2020): A circular loop of radius r is placed in a uniform magnetic field B (normal to
plane). If B changes from B■ to B■ in time t, find the induced EMF.

Answer: Φ■ = B■πr², Φ■ = B■πr²; ε = ∆Φ/∆t = πr²(B■-B■)/t

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PYQ 4 (2 marks, 2018): Why is the transformer core laminated? Why is it made of soft iron?

Answer:

- Laminated to reduce eddy current losses (thin insulated sheets restrict eddy current paths → less I²R
heating)

- Soft iron because it has low hysteresis loss (easily magnetized and demagnetized → less energy
wasted per cycle) and high permeability

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PYQ 5 (3 marks, 2017): (a) Define self inductance. (b) A rectangular coil of area 8 × 10■³ m², 100
turns, resistance 5 Ω is placed in a field B = 2 T with its plane perpendicular to B. If the field drops to
zero in 0.1 s, find induced current.

Answer:

(a) Self inductance is the property of a coil by which it opposes change in current through itself. NΦ = LI.

(b) ∆Φ = (0 - 2) × 8×10■³ = -16×10■³ Wb

ε=N ∆Φ/∆t = 100 × 16×10■³/0.1 = **16 V**

I = ε/R = 16/5 = 3.2 A

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PYQ 6 (3 marks, 2019): (a) State Faraday's laws of EMI. (b) How is Lenz's Law a consequence of
conservation of energy?

Answer:

(a) First Law: EMF is induced whenever flux through a circuit changes. Second Law: ε = -N dΦ/dt.

(b) If induced current aided the cause instead of opposing it, flux would increase further, causing more
current, which would again increase flux — a runaway effect creating energy from nothing. This violates
conservation of energy. Hence, induced current must oppose the cause (Lenz's Law), requiring external
work to maintain the motion, which converts to electrical energy.

---

PYQ 7 (3 marks, 2020): Derive an expression for the self inductance of a long solenoid. What happens
to L if a material of relative permeability 1000 is used as core?

Answer:

Derivation: (as given in Part 15, Derivation 2)

L = µ■N²A/l

With µ■ = 1000: L_new = µ■µ■N²A/l = 1000 × L

L increases 1000 times.

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PYQ 8 (5 marks, 2018): (a) Describe the construction and working of an AC generator with a labeled
diagram. (b) Derive the expression for instantaneous EMF. (c) A coil of area 0.04 m², 500 turns rotates
at 100 rev/s in B = 0.05 T. Calculate peak EMF.

Answer:

(a)(b) See Part 11, AC Generator section.

(c) ω = 2π × 100 = 200π rad/s

ε■ = NBAω = 500 × 0.05 × 0.04 × 200π = 500 × 0.05 × 0.04 × 628.3

ε■ = 500 × 1.257 = 628.3 V

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PYQ 9 (2 marks, 2016): Two coils have mutual inductance 0.005 H. Current in first coil: I = 10
sin(100πt) A. Find maximum EMF in second coil.

Answer: dI■/dt = 10 × 100π cos(100πt) = 1000π cos(100πt)

Maximum dI■/dt = 1000π

ε■_max = M × 1000π = 0.005 × 1000π = 5π ≈ 15.7 V

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PYQ 10 (2 marks, 2021): A conducting rod of length 0.5 m is moved with velocity 10 m/s in a direction
perpendicular to its own length and perpendicular to a magnetic field B = 1.2 T. Find the EMF, and state
which end (P or Q) of the rod is at higher potential.

Answer: ε = Blv = 1.2 × 0.5 × 10 = 6 V

Direction: Using Fleming's Right Hand Rule (or F = qv×B), determine which end accumulates positive
charges (higher potential).

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PYQ 11 (1 mark, 2019): Name the physical quantity whose unit is Weber. Is it scalar or vector?

Answer: Magnetic flux (Φ). It is a scalar quantity.

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PYQ 12 (3 marks, 2017): A rectangular loop of sides 8 cm and 2 cm moves with velocity 10 cm/s into a
region of uniform field B = 0.3 T (perpendicular to plane). Find: (a) EMF, (b) force on the loop, (c) power
dissipated (R = 4 Ω).

Answer: l = 2 cm = 0.02 m, v = 0.1 m/s, B = 0.3 T

(a) ε = Blv = 0.3 × 0.02 × 0.1 = 6 × 10■■ V

(b) I = ε/R = 6×10■■/4 = 1.5×10■■ A

F = BIl = 0.3 × 1.5×10■■ × 0.02 = 9 × 10■■ N

(c) P = ε²/R = (6×10■■)²/4 = 9 × 10■■ W

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PYQ 13 (2 marks, 2020): What are eddy currents? Give two methods to reduce eddy current losses.

Answer:

Eddy currents are currents induced in bulk conductors by changing magnetic flux. Methods to reduce:

1. Use laminated core (thin insulated sheets)

2. Use high resistivity materials (silicon steel instead of pure iron)

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PYQ 14 (1 mark, 2022): The coefficient of self induction of a coil is 5 mH. Calculate the back EMF if the
current decreases from 5 A to 0 A in 0.1 ms.

**Answer:** ε = L ∆I/∆t = 5×10■³ × 5/(0.1×10■³) = 5×10■³ × 5×10■ = **250 V**

---

PYQ 15 (3 marks, 2018): (a) What is electromagnetic induction? (b) State and explain Faraday's
Second Law. (c) A coil of 50 turns and resistance 10 Ω is placed in a field that changes from 0.02 Wb to
0.08 Wb in 0.2 s. Find induced current.

Answer:

(a) EMI: Production of EMF in a conductor due to changing magnetic flux.

(b) Magnitude of induced EMF = rate of change of flux linkage = N × dΦ/dt

(c) ε = N × ∆Φ/∆t = 50 × (0.08-0.02)/0.2 = 50 × 0.3 = 15 V

I = ε/R = 15/10 = 1.5 A

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PYQ 16 (2 marks, 2019): Distinguish between step-up and step-down transformer.

Feature Step-Up Step-Down

|---|---|---|

N■ vs N■ N■ > N■ N■ < N■

Voltage V■ > V■ V■ < V■

Current I■ < I■ I■ > I■

Use Power transmission Power distribution

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PYQ 17 (5 marks, 2016): (a) Explain the phenomenon of mutual induction with diagram. (b) Derive
expression for mutual inductance of two coaxial solenoids. (c) Two coaxial solenoids of same area 6
cm², lengths 60 cm and 40 cm have 300 and 400 turns. What is M?

Answer:

(a)(b) See Part 8.

(c) Take inner solenoid: N■ = 300, l■ = 60 cm = 0.6 m, A = 6 cm² = 6×10■■ m², N■ = 400

M = µ■N■N■A/l = (4π×10■■ × 300 × 400 × 6×10■■) / 0.6

M = 4π×10■■ × 120000 × 6×10■■ / 0.6

M = 4π×10■■ × 1.2×10■ × 10■³

M = 4π × 10■■ × 120
M = 480π × 10■■ ≈ 1.508 × 10■■ H ≈ 0.15 mH

---

PYQ 18 (1 mark, 2023): A coil of N turns, resistance R is connected to a galvanometer. The coil is
placed in a magnetic field. Does the induced charge depend on the speed of withdrawal of coil from the
field?

Answer: No. q = N∆Φ/R — charge depends only on change in flux and resistance, NOT on the speed
(rate of change). Speed affects the current and EMF, but not the total charge.

---

PYQ 19 (2 marks, 2022): An aircraft with a wing span of 50 m flies horizontally with speed 720 km/h.
Earth's magnetic field has a vertical component of 4 × 10■■ T. Find the EMF induced between the wing
tips.

Answer: v = 720 km/h = 200 m/s, l = 50 m, B = 4×10■■ T

ε = Blv = 4×10■■ × 50 × 200 = 4 V

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PYQ 20 (3 marks, 2021): Explain how electromagnetic braking works. Give two advantages over
mechanical braking.

Answer:

When a conductor moves through a magnetic field, eddy currents are induced in it. These currents
create a retarding force (Lenz's Law) that opposes the motion, slowing it down — this is
magnetic/electromagnetic braking.

Advantages over mechanical braking:

1. No wear and tear — no physical contact, so no friction, no wear

2. Smooth braking — braking force proportional to speed; gradual, not jerky

3. Low maintenance — no pads or discs to replace

4. Clean — no brake dust

---

PYQ 21 (1 mark, 2020): What is the significance of the negative sign in Faraday's law: ε = -N dΦ/dt?
Answer: The negative sign represents Lenz's Law — the induced EMF always acts in a direction to
oppose the change in flux that produces it.

---

PYQ 22 (3 marks, 2019): Draw a labeled diagram of an AC generator. Explain its working principle.
Name the device that converts it to DC.

Answer: See Part 11 (diagram + working). Device: Rectifier (using a commutator in DC generator, or a
separate rectifier circuit with diodes for AC-to-DC conversion).

---

PYQ 23 (2 marks, 2018): A coil of area A and N turns is held perpendicular to a uniform field B and
then turned through 180°. What is the average induced EMF if the turn takes time T?

Answer:

Initial flux: Φ■ = NBA (coil ⊥ B means area vector ■ B, θ=0)

Final flux: Φ■ = NBA cos 180° = -NBA

∆Φ = Φ■ - Φ■ = -2NBA

ε_avg =N ∆Φ/∆t = N × 2NBA/T = **2N²BA/T**

Wait, let me recalculate: ε_avg = N ∆Φ /T = N × 2BA/T = **2NBA/T** ✓

---

PYQ 24 (2 marks, 2022): Define the term "flux linkage" and state its SI unit. If a coil has self-inductance
2 H and carries a current of 3 A, find the flux linkage.

Answer:

Flux linkage = NΦ = product of number of turns and flux through each turn. SI unit: Weber-turns (Wb)
or Weber.

Flux linkage = LI = 2 × 3 = 6 Wb-turns

---

PYQ 25 (5 marks, 2020): (a) Define self induction and mutual induction. (b) Derive self inductance of a
solenoid. (c) Solenoid A: N■=500, l=50 cm, area=4 cm²; Solenoid B (wound over A): N■=300. Find M.

Answer:
(a) Self induction: Property of coil to oppose change in its own current. NΦ = LI; ε = -L(dI/dt)

Mutual induction: EMF in one coil due to current change in nearby coil. N■Φ■■ = MI■; ε■ =
-M(dI■/dt)

(b) Derivation: L = µ■N²A/l (see Part 15, Derivation 2)

(c) M = µ■N■N■A/l = (4π×10■■ × 500 × 300 × 4×10■■) / 0.5

= 4π×10■■ × 150000 × 4×10■■ / 0.5

= 4π×10■■ × 1.2×10■

= 4π × 1.2 × 10■² = 4.8π × 10■²

= 0.1508 × 10■³ H ≈ 0.15 mH

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PART 25: MIND MAP OF THE CHAPTER

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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

■■■■■■■■
■ EMI ■

■■■■■■■■

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▼▼▼

■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

■ Magnetic ■ ■ Faraday's■ ■ Applications ■
■ Flux ■ ■ Laws ■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■

■ ■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

Φ=BACosθ ε=-NdΦ/dt ■ ■

Weber (Wb) ■ AC Generator Transformer

 ■■■■■■■■■■■ ε=ε■sin(ωt) V■/V■=N■/N■
■ Lenz's ■
■ Law ■

■■■■■■■■■■■

Opposes change in flux

(Conservation of Energy)
■
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▼▼▼
■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■
■ Motional ■ ■ Self ■ ■ Mutual ■
■ EMF ■ ■Induction ■ ■Induction ■

■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■

Blv ε=-L(dI/dt) ε■=-M(dI■/dt)

½Bωl² L=µ■N²A/l M=µ■N■N■A/l

U=½LI² M=k√(L■L■)
■
■■■■■■■■■■■
■ Eddy ■
■Currents ■

■■■■■■■■■■■

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

▼▼

Disadvantages Applications

(Energy loss, (Braking,Furnace,

heating) Cooktop,Detector)

Remedy: Lamination

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PART 26: IMPORTANT DIAGRAMS DESCRIPTION

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■■■■■■
(For exam drawing guidance)

Diagram 1: Faraday's Coil-Magnet Experiment

- Draw galvanometer (circle with G) connected to a rectangular coil

- Show bar magnet with N and S labeled

- Arrow showing magnet moving toward/away from coil

- Label: coil, galvanometer, direction of induced current (use arrows on coil)

Diagram 2: AC Generator
- Draw rectangular coil ABCD between N and S poles of magnet

- Show slip rings on both sides of the axle

- Show carbon brushes touching slip rings

- Show external resistance R connected through brushes

- Label all parts: armature coil, permanent magnet, slip rings, brushes, axle, external circuit

Diagram 3: Sliding Rod (Motional EMF)

- Draw two parallel rails separated by distance l

- Show resistor R at one end connecting the rails

- Show rod PQ sliding on the rails with velocity v

- Show magnetic field B directed into the page (⊗ symbols)

- Label: B, v, l, P, Q, R, induced current direction

Diagram 4: Self Induction Setup

- Draw coil L connected to battery through switch

- Connect bulb in series

- Show: when switch is opened, bulb glows brightly momentarily (back-EMF drives current)

Diagram 5: Mutual Induction

- Draw primary coil P connected to battery and switch

- Draw secondary coil S nearby, connected to galvanometer

- Show arrow for magnetic flux linking the two coils

- Label: Primary, Secondary, magnetic flux Φ, galvanometer G

Diagram 6: Transformer
- Draw E-I shaped laminated iron core

- Draw primary coil on left limb (N■ turns)

- Draw secondary coil on right limb (N■ turns)

- Label: Input V■, Output V■, N■, N■, iron core (laminated)

- Show AC source at primary, load resistance at secondary

Diagram 7: Eddy Currents in Solid vs Laminated Core

- Left: solid rectangular block with swirling eddy current arrows (large loops)

- Right: same block shown as thin laminated sheets with small restricted eddy current loops

- Label: Large eddy currents (high loss) vs Small eddy currents (low loss)

Diagram 8: Rotating Rod EMF

- Draw a rod OA with O at pivot point

- Show the rod in a horizontal plane

- Show B field perpendicular (into page)

- Show ω (angular velocity) arrow for rotation

- Shade a small element dx at distance x from O

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PART 27: IMPORTANT TIPS FOR BOARD EXAM

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■ EXAM STRATEGY TIPS ■

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■■

■ ★ Most Frequently Asked Derivations (must know): ■

■ 1. L = µ■N²A/l (solenoid self inductance) ■

■ 2. ε = NBAω (AC generator) ■

■ 3. ε = Blv (motional EMF — both methods) ■

■ 4. ε = ½Bωl² (rotating rod) ■

■ 5. U = ½LI² (energy in inductor) ■

■ 6. M = µ■N■N■A/l (coaxial solenoids) ■

■■

■ ★ Most Common 1-Mark Questions: ■

■ • SI unit of L, Φ, M ■

■ • State Lenz's Law ■

■ • Formula for motional EMF ■

■ • What is 1 Henry? ■

■ • Direction of induced current (use Lenz's) ■

■■

■ ★ Important Numericals Types: ■

■ • Flux change → EMF → Current (Faraday's Law) ■

■ • Sliding rod (ε, I, F, P — all 4 in one problem) ■

■ • AC generator peak EMF calculation ■

■ • Transformer voltage/current/efficiency ■

■ • Energy in inductor ■

■■
■ ★ Common Mistakes to Avoid: ■

■ • Forgetting N (number of turns) in ε = -NdΦ/dt ■

■ • Using wrong angle in Φ = BAcosθ ■

■ • Confusing Fleming's Left and Right hand rules ■

■ • Forgetting negative sign and not explaining it ■

■ • Not converting units (cm²→m², km/h→m/s) ■

■ • Saying "transformer works on DC" (it doesn't!) ■

■■

■ ★ Diagrams that MUST be drawn in exam: ■

■ • AC Generator (with all labels) ■

■ • Transformer (showing laminated core) ■

■ • Sliding rod on rails ■

■■

■ ★ Keywords to use in theory answers: ■

■ • "rate of change of flux" ■

■ • "opposes the change" (for Lenz's) ■

■ • "flux linkage = NΦ" ■

■ • "conservation of energy" ■

■ • "closed circuit" (for current to flow) ■

■■

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```

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PART 28: CONSTANTS AND STANDARD VALUES

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Constant Symbol Value

|---|---|---|

Permeability of free space µ■ 4π × 10■■ H/m

Relative permeability of air/vacuum µ■ 1

Relative permeability of soft iron µ■ ~1000-5000

Speed of light c 3 × 10■ m/s

Earth's B field (approx) B_Earth ~5 × 10■■ T

Standard frequency (India) f 50 Hz

Standard voltage (India, household) V_rms 220 V

Standard voltage peak (India) V■ 311 V ≈ 220√2

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FINAL WORDS

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■■

■ "Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction ■

■ is perhaps the greatest discovery in physics in ■

■ terms of its practical impact on civilization." ■

■ — James Clerk Maxwell■

■■
■ Everything electrical in your life — from the lights ■

■ to your phone charger to the power grid — ■

■ runs on this ONE principle: ε = -N dΦ/dt ■

■■

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CHAPTER SUMMARY IN 5 LINES:

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1. Changing magnetic flux induces EMF: ε = -NdΦ/dt (Faraday)

2. Induced current opposes the cause: Lenz's Law (= Energy Conservation)

3. Moving conductor in B creates EMF: ε = Blv or ½Bωl²

4. Coil's own changing current induces back-EMF: ε = -L(dI/dt)

5. Two coils can transfer energy magnetically: ε■ = -M(dI■/dt)

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GOOD LUCK FOR YOUR EXAMS!

Study Smart. Score Full. ■

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Notes compiled for Class 12 Physics — Electromagnetic Induction

*Covers: CBSE Board Curriculum NCERT Topics JEE/NEET Level*

Version: Complete Edition