Physics Notes
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<title>Physics Experimentation Skills - Complete Notes & Answers (Grade 9 & 10)</title>
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<!-- COVER PAGE -->
<div class="cover-page">
<h1>Physics Experimentation Skills</h1>
<div class="subtitle">Complete Notes & Viva Voce Answers</div>
<h2>Grade 9 & 10</h2>
<p class="info">Based on National Curriculum of Pakistan 2022-23</p>
<p class="info">Supplementary Reading Material</p>
<hr style="margin: 30px auto; width: 60%;">
<p class="info"><strong>National Curriculum Council</strong></p>
<p class="info">Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training</p>
<p class="info">National Book Foundation as Federal Textbook Board</p>
<p class="info" style="margin-top: 30px; font-size: 10pt;">© 2024 National Book Foundation</p>
</div>
<!-- TABLE OF CONTENTS -->
<div class="toc">
<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
<ul>
<li><strong>Unit 1:</strong> Lab Safety</li>
<li><strong>Unit 2:</strong> Error Analysis</li>
<li><strong>Unit 3:</strong> Significant Figures</li>
<li><strong>Unit 4:</strong> Inclined Plane</li>
<li><strong>Unit 5:</strong> Simple Pendulum</li>
<li><strong>Unit 6:</strong> Helical Spring</li>
<li><strong>Unit 7:</strong> Density and Fluids</li>
<li><strong>Unit 8:</strong> Electrical Circuits</li>
<li><strong>Unit 9:</strong> Optics</li>
<li style="border-top: 2px solid #333; margin-top: 15px;"><strong>Appendix:</strong> Useful F
</ul>
</div>
<!-- UNIT 1: LAB SAFETY -->
<h1 class="unit-title">UNIT 1: LAB SAFETY</h1>
<h2>Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs)</h2>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-10-N-01]</strong> Explain how hazards in a science lab can be classified into:
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-10-N-02]</strong> Identify for a given experimental procedure what would be th
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-10-N-03]</strong> Identify the meaning of common hazard signs in the laborator
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-10-N-04]</strong> Call emergency services in case of an accident in the lab.
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-49]</strong> Identify unsafe procedures in an experimental design and sugges
</div>
<h2>Key Concepts</h2>
<h3>Importance of Lab Safety</h3>
<p>Lab safety is a fundamental aspect of any laboratory environment, serving to protect personnel, pr
<h3>Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
<strong>PPE Definition:</strong> Personal protective equipment acts like a shield to lower the ch
</div>
<p><strong>Essential PPE Items:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Safety Goggles/Glasses:</strong> Protect eyes from flying debris, liquid splashes, or
<li><strong>Gloves:</strong> Protect hands from cuts, burns, or harmful substances. Different typ
<li><strong>Lab Coat:</strong> Shields body from chemicals, prevents contamination, maintains ste
<li><strong>Closed-toe Shoes:</strong> Protect feet from falling objects and spills.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Dress Code for Physics Lab</h3>
<ul>
<li>Tie back long hair</li>
<li>Remove dangling jewelry</li>
<li>Wear closed-toe shoes</li>
<li>Wear lab coat or protective apron</li>
<li>Avoid loose clothing that could get caught on equipment</li>
</ul>
<h3>Four Types of Hazards in Physics Labs</h3>
<h4>1. Physical Hazards</h4>
<p>Involve objects or equipment that can cause physical harm:</p>
<ul>
<li>Sharp objects (broken glass, scalpels)</li>
<li>Heavy objects (can crush toes)</li>
<li>Improper use of electrical equipment (shock risk)</li>
<li>Direct exposure to laser beams (eye damage)</li>
</ul>
<h4>2. Chemical Hazards</h4>
<p>Less common than chemistry labs but still present:</p>
<ul>
<li>Corrosive chemicals (skin burns)</li>
<li>Flammable liquids (fire risk)</li>
<li>Compressed gases (explosion if mishandled)</li>
</ul>
<h4>3. Biological Hazards</h4>
<p>Less common in physics labs:</p>
<ul>
<li>Bacteria or mold causing infections</li>
<li>Bodily fluids requiring proper disposal</li>
</ul>
<h4>4. Safety Hazards</h4>
<p>Come from improper lab practices:</p>
<ul>
<li>Incorrect lifting techniques (back injuries)</li>
<li>Fooling around/horseplay (accidents)</li>
<li>Working alone without a partner</li>
</ul>
<h3>Common Laboratory Safety Signs</h3>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Sign</th>
<th>Meaning</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Eye Protection Required</td>
<td>Must wear goggles/glasses during activity</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Hand Protection Required</td>
<td>Must wear gloves for protection</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Flammable Materials</td>
<td>Presents fire hazard - be cautious with flames</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Electrical Hazard</td>
<td>Potential electrical danger - follow protocols</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Biohazard</td>
<td>Biological materials present - handle with care</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Laser Safety</td>
<td>Laser area - never look directly at beam</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Non-Slip Footwear Required</td>
<td>Wear closed-toe shoes with good traction</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Wash Hands Before Leaving</td>
<td>Prevent contamination - wash thoroughly</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Emergency Exit</td>
<td>Nearest exit route for evacuation</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Eyewash Station</td>
<td>Location for flushing eyes after chemical splash</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3>Emergency Procedures</h3>
<ol>
<li><strong>Stay Calm:</strong> Avoid panic; clear thinking is necessary for appropriate action.<
<li><strong>Inform Teacher Immediately:</strong> Teachers are trained to handle emergencies.</li>
<li><strong>Evacuate if Necessary:</strong> Follow instructions calmly for fires or major spills.
<li><strong>Assist Others:</strong> Help classmates if safe to do so.</li>
<li><strong>Follow Additional Instructions:</strong> Fire alarms, eyewash stations, emergency con
</ol>
<h3>Emergency Helplines in Pakistan</h3>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Sr#</th>
<th>Organisation</th>
<th>Number</th>
</tr>
<tr><td>1</td><td>Edhi Ambulance Helpline</td><td>115</td></tr>
<tr><td>2</td><td>Chhipa Ambulance Helpline</td><td>1020</td></tr>
<tr><td>3</td><td>Rescue helpline</td><td>1122</td></tr>
<tr><td>4</td><td>Police Madadgar helpline</td><td>15</td></tr>
<tr><td>5</td><td>Rangers Helpline</td><td>1101</td></tr>
<tr><td>6</td><td>Fire Brigade Helpline</td><td>16</td></tr>
<tr><td>7</td><td>Pakistan Medical Assistance Helpline</td><td>1166</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3>Common Emergencies and Procedures</h3>
<h4>Fire Emergency</h4>
<ul>
<li>Small fire: Use fire extinguisher if trained; otherwise evacuate immediately.</li>
<li><strong>NEVER use water on electrical fire!</strong></li>
</ul>
<h4>Chemical Spills</h4>
<ul>
<li>Minor spills: Follow cleanup instructions with proper PPE; dispose waste properly.</li>
<li>Major spills: Evacuate area; let teacher handle it.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Chemical Splash</h4>
<ul>
<li>Rinse affected area with clean water for minimum 15 minutes using eyewash station/safety show
<li>Inform teacher and seek medical assistance if needed.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Broken Glass</h4>
<ul>
<li>Do NOT touch with bare hands; use tools like brush/dustpan.</li>
<li>Dispose in designated sharps containers.</li>
<li>Apply pressure to stop bleeding; seek medical attention for severe injuries.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Electrical Shock</h4>
<ul>
<li>Avoid direct contact with victim.</li>
<li>If possible, deactivate power source.</li>
<li>Contact emergency services immediately.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Mitigating Hazards in Experimental Procedures</h3>
<div class="important-note">
<strong>Risk 1: Heating flammable liquids without good airflow</strong><br>
<em>Recommendation:</em> Use fume hood or well-ventilated area; use fans or open windows.
</div>
<div class="important-note">
<strong>Risk 2: Using cracked glassware</strong><br>
<em>Recommendation:</em> Inspect all glassware before use; discard damaged items.
</div>
<div class="important-note">
<strong>Risk 3: Handling toxic chemicals without PPE</strong><br>
<em>Recommendation:</em> Wear appropriate goggles, lab coats, respirators as needed.
</div>
<div class="important-note">
<strong>Risk 4: Neglecting proper waste disposal</strong><br>
<em>Recommendation:</em> Establish clear guidelines; provide designated containers for different
</div>
<div class="important-note">
<strong>Risk 5: Inadequate emergency preparedness</strong><br>
<em>Recommendation:</em> Develop specific emergency plan; ensure everyone knows locations of exit
</div>
<!-- VIVA VOCE ANSWERS - UNIT 1 -->
<h2>VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - Unit 1</h2>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 1: What is dress code for physics lab?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Tie back long hair, remove dangling jewelry, and wear closed-toe sho
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 2: What is Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> It is specialized clothing, eyewear, or other gear worn to minimize
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 3: Why eating food in lab is not allowed?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Eating, drinking, or chewing gum is strictly prohibited in the lab.
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 4: Why is 'horseplay' a safety hazard?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Fooling around or playing pranks in the lab can result in accidents.
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 5: Why is lab partner required for safety reasons?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> In case of an accident, your lab partner could take the necessary st
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 6: Why are safety signs displayed in physics lab?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> By paying attention to safety signs and following the safety protoco
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 7: Why is it not recommended to throw water on electrical fire?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> There are two main reasons:<br>
1. <strong>Water Conducts Electricity:</strong> Water is a good conductor of electricity. Whe
2. <strong>Spreading the Fire:</strong> In some cases, throwing water on an electrical fire c
</div>
</div>
<hr class="page-break">
<!-- UNIT 2: ERROR ANALYSIS -->
<h1 class="unit-title">UNIT 2: ERROR ANALYSIS</h1>
<h2>Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs)</h2>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-10-N-05]</strong> Define and use terms: true value, accuracy, precision, repea
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-10-N-08]</strong> Explain step-by-step methodology for analyzing data (gradien
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-10-N-09]</strong> Suggest how sources of human and systematic error could be m
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-10-N-10]</strong> Set up experimental apparatus under supervision from instruc
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-15]</strong> Identify sources of potential error (e.g., lack of lighting due
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-16]</strong> Take steps to avoid systematic error in specific context (ensur
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-48]</strong> Recommend how to mitigate sources of random and systematic erro
</div>
<h2>Important Terms and Definitions</h2>
<h3>True Value</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
The value that would be obtained in an ideal measurement. Scientists determine accuracy by subtra
</div>
<h3>Measurement Error</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
The difference between a measured value and the true value of a quantity. Errors occur due to hum
</div>
<div class="formula-box">
Error = True value − Measured value
</div>
<h3>Accuracy vs Precision</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
<strong>Accuracy:</strong> How close measurement results are to the true value. Well-calibrated i
</div>
<div class="definition-box">
<strong>Precision:</strong> How close measured values are to each other. Higher precision = more
</div>
<p>Data can be:</p>
<ul>
<li>Accurate but not precise</li>
<li>Precise but not accurate</li>
<li>Both accurate and precise</li>
<li>Neither accurate nor precise</li>
</ul>
<h3>Repeatability</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
A measurement is repeatable if the same or similar result is obtained when repeated under the SAM
</div>
<h3>Reproducibility</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
A measurement is reproducible if similar result is obtained under DIFFERENT conditions, by DIFFER
</div>
<h3>Independent Variables</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Variables changed by the scientist. Changes may affect dependent variable. Typically plotted on x
</div>
<h3>Dependent Variables</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Variables observed or measured in response to changes in independent variable. Value depends on i
</div>
<h3>Range</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Maximum and minimum value of variables. Calculated as:
</div>
<div class="formula-box">
Range = Maximum value − Minimum value
</div>
<h3>Validity of Experimental Design</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
An experiment is valid if it tests what it claims to test. Must be a fair test where only indepen
</div>
<h3>Anomaly</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
A value outside general pattern of results - extreme value (very high or very low). Can occur due
</div>
<h2>Step-by-Step Methodology for Analyzing Data</h2>
<ol>
<li><strong>Data Organization and Description:</strong> Check for errors, arrange raw data system
<li><strong>Descriptive Statistics Calculation:</strong> Find descriptive statistics; conduct reg
<li><strong>Data Visualization:</strong> Use scatter plot and regression line to visualize relati
<li><strong>Determine Relationships:</strong> Analyze slope of best-fit line; steeper slope = str
<li><strong>Conduct Hypothesis Testing:</strong> Test significance of relationships (e.g., if slo
<li><strong>Interpret Results:</strong> Discuss implications of slope in relation to phenomenon s
<li><strong>Limitations and Anomalies Consideration:</strong> Address outliers or violations of s
<li><strong>Draw Conclusions:</strong> Conclude about variable relationships; discuss practical i
<li><strong>Communicate Results:</strong> Present through reports, presentations, or visualizatio
</ol>
<h2>Mitigating Errors</h2>
<h3>Mitigating Human Error</h3>
<ul>
<li>Comprehensive training on conducting experiments properly</li>
<li>Emphasize attention to detail and careful observations</li>
<li>Implement double-checking system (students review each other's work)</li>
<li>Keep clear and organized notes throughout experiment</li>
</ul>
<h3>Mitigating Random Error</h3>
<ul>
<li>Control as many variables as possible during experiment</li>
<li>Maintain stable, controlled environment</li>
<li>Use calibrated instruments</li>
<li>Conduct multiple trials to account for variability</li>
<li>Incorporate randomization techniques</li>
</ul>
<h3>Mitigating Systematic Error</h3>
<ul>
<li>Pay close attention to design and execution</li>
<li>Conduct pilot studies to identify potential bias</li>
<li>Regularly calibrate equipment</li>
<li>Implement blinding techniques to minimize observer bias</li>
<li>Critically evaluate methods and consider alternative explanations</li>
</ul>
<!-- VIVA VOCE ANSWERS - UNIT 2 -->
<h2>VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - Unit 2</h2>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 1: What do we mean by measurement error?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Measurement error refers to the discrepancy between the measured val
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 2: What is precision and accuracy in measurement?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong>
• <strong>Precision:</strong> Degree of consistency or reproducibility of measured values. In
• <strong>Accuracy:</strong> Closeness of measured value to true value. Measurement can be pr
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 3: What is deviation in measurements?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Deviation refers to difference between individual measured value and
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 4: What is the scope of dependent variables?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Scope of dependent variables refers to range/extent of values that d
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 5: What factors should be taken into account for experimental design?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Research question/objective, selection of appropriate variables, cho
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 6: How crucial is data visualization (slope of best-fit line) in data analy
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Data visualization such as slope of best-fit line is crucial as it h
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 7: How can we reduce human error?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Implement proper training and standard operating procedures, use cal
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 8: How significant is teacher oversight in experiments?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Teacher oversight ensures student safety, provides guidance/support
</div>
</div>
<hr class="page-break">
<!-- UNIT 3: SIGNIFICANT FIGURES -->
<h1 class="unit-title">UNIT 3: SIGNIFICANT FIGURES</h1>
<h2>Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs)</h2>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-12]</strong> Identify and correct for potential zero error
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-20]</strong> Measurement of physical quantities such as length, volume or fo
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-38]</strong> Use measuring instruments to their full precision
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-39]</strong> Estimate number of significant figures for calculated quantitie
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-40]</strong> Show clear working in calculations, and key steps in reasoning
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-41]</strong> Express calculated ratios as decimal numbers of two or three si
</div>
<h2>Vernier Calipers</h2>
<h3>Definition</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
A device used to measure a fraction of smallest scale division by sliding another scale with some
</div>
<h3>Least Count Calculation</h3>
<div class="formula-box">
Least Count = Value of Smallest Measurement on Main Scale / Total Number of Divisions on Vernier
Example: LC = 1mm / 20 = 0.05mm
</div>
<h3>Zero Error in Vernier Calipers</h3>
<h4>Type 1: Negative Zero Error (Vernier scale LEFT of zero on main scale)</h4>
<p>Error is NEGATIVE. Note division of vernier scale coinciding with main scale division. Multiply by
<h4>Type 2: Positive Zero Error (Vernier scale RIGHT of zero on main scale)</h4>
<p>Error is POSITIVE. Note coinciding vernier division. Multiply by least count. <strong>Positive zer
<h2>Screw Gauge (Micrometer)</h2>
<h3>Definition</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
A device used to measure fraction of smallest scale division by rotatory motion of circular scale
</div>
<h3>Key Terms</h3>
<ul>
<li><strong>Pitch:</strong> Distance traveled by circular scale on linear scale in one rotation</
<li><strong>Least Count:</strong> Minimum length measurable accurately = Pitch / Number of circul
</ul>
<h3>Zero Error in Screw Gauge</h3>
<h4>Negative Zero Error (Zero of circular scale ABOVE reference line)</h4>
<p>Count divisions from zero coinciding with reference line (-m). Zero error = (-m) × L.C. <strong>Ad
<h4>Positive Zero Error (Zero of circular scale BELOW reference line)</h4>
<p>Note coinciding division (+m). Zero error = (+m) × L.C. <strong>Subtract from final reading.</stro
<h2>Volume Formulas</h2>
<h3>Volume of Cylinder</h3>
<div class="formula-box">
V = π × r² × h = (π × D² × h) / 4<br>
Where D = diameter, r = radius, h = height
</div>
<h3>Volume of Sphere</h3>
<div class="formula-box">
V = (4/3) × π × r³<br>
Where r = radius = D/2
</div>
<h2>Maximum Precision Guidelines</h2>
<ol>
<li><strong>Cleanliness:</strong> Ensure instrument is free from debris</li>
<li><strong>Zero Adjustment:</strong> Verify main scale reads zero when jaws/anvils closed</li>
<li><strong>Understand Instruments:</strong> Properly interpret scales</li>
<li><strong>Recording Measurements:</strong> Record to nearest smallest division + fractional par
<li><strong>Practice and Consistency:</strong> Hold steady, perpendicular to object</li>
</ol>
<h2>Significant Figures Rules</h2>
<h3>Addition and Subtraction</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Result is as precise as LEAST precise quantity. Round to keep same number of decimal places as qu
</div>
<p><strong>Example:</strong> 44.56005 + 0.0698 + 1103.2 = 1147.82985 → Round to <strong>1147.8</stro
<h3>Multiplication and Division</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Result has same number of significant figures as quantity with FEWEST significant figures.
</div>
<p><strong>Example:</strong> 45.26 × 2.41 = 109.0766 → Round to 3 sig figs = <strong>109</strong> (o
<!-- EXPERIMENT 1 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 1: Measure Length and Diameter of Solid Cylinder Using V
<h4>Procedure Summary:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Note value of one main scale division (X) and number of vernier scale divisions (N); find
<li>Find zero error of vernier calipers.</li>
<li>Place cylinder between jaws on rounded side (avoid undue pressure).</li>
<li>Observe vernier scale zero position; note Main Scale Reading (MSR) 'A'.</li>
<li>Find coinciding vernier division (VSD) 'n'; calculate vernier reading B = n × LC.</li>
<li>Total reading = A + B (gives diameter).</li>
<li>Repeat 5 times at different positions; find mean diameter and radius.</li>
<li>Measure height similarly; calculate volume V = πD²h/4.</li>
<li>Round off to proper significant figures.</li>
</ol>
<div class="precaution-box">
<strong>Precautions:</strong>
<ul>
<li>Do not exert undue pressure on object</li>
<li>Jaws should just touch the object</li>
<li>Take readings at different positions</li>
<li>Use magnifying glass if needed for accurate coincidence reading</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- EXPERIMENT 2 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 2: Measure Diameters of Ball Bearings Using Screw Gauge<
<h4>Procedure Summary:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Find distance (X) traveled in 5 rotations; calculate pitch = X/5.</li>
<li>Note circular scale divisions; calculate LC = Pitch / Total divisions.</li>
<li>Find zero error of micrometer screw gauge.</li>
<li>Hold sphere between jaws (no undue pressure); note MSR 'A'.</li>
<li>Note CSD 'n' coinciding with reference line; calculate CSR = n × LC.</li>
<li>Total reading T = A + B; apply zero correction.</li>
<li>Take 5 readings; find mean corrected diameter.</li>
<li>Calculate volume V = (4/3)πr³; round to proper sig figs.</li>
</ol>
<div class="precaution-box">
<strong>Precautions:</strong>
<ul>
<li>Do not apply undue pressure while turning micrometer screw</li>
<li>Minimize backlash error by rotating always in same direction</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- VIVA VOCE ANSWERS - UNIT 3 -->
<h2>VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - Unit 3</h2>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 1: What is Vernier Caliper?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> A device used to measure a fraction of smallest scale division by sl
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 2: Who invented Vernier Caliper?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Vernier caliper was invented in 1631 by French Mathematician Pierre
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 3: What is Least Count?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> The smallest measurement a device can make is called least count.
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 4: What is Least Count of Vernier Caliper?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> The difference between one main scale division and one vernier divis
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 5: Why is Vernier Caliper widely used?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> The vernier caliper can correctly measure up to fraction of centimet
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 6: What are Significant Figures?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> All the accurately known digits and the first doubtful digit is call
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 7: Why do we need to round off calculated values?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Calculations from calculator will exceed number of significant figur
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 8: What is Screw Gauge?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> A device used to measure fraction of smallest scale division by rota
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 9: Why is this instrument called screw gauge?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> This works on principle of a screw and is used to measure diameter (
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 10: What is principle of Screw Gauge?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Forward and backward movement of screw is directly proportional to l
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 11: What is pitch of Screw Gauge?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Distance traveled by circular scale on linear scale in one rotation
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 12: What is Least Count of Screw Gauge?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Minimum length measurable accurately by screw gauge. Found by dividi
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 13: What is use of ratchet in this instrument?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> With help of ratchet, given wire is held between stud and screw. It
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 14: How is full precision of screw gauge obtained?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Through combination of design features and proper technique:<br>
• Screw design amplifies movement for finer adjustments<br>
• Circular scale allows reading fractions of smallest barrel division<br>
• Careful measurement: proper zeroing, alignment, minimizing errors
</div>
</div>
<hr class="page-break">
<!-- UNIT 4: INCLINED PLANE -->
<h1 class="unit-title">UNIT 4: INCLINED PLANE</h1>
<h2>Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs)</h2>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-13]</strong> Take appropriate number of readings to average out errors
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-21]</strong> Measurement of small distances or short intervals of time
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-34]</strong> Label axes with quantities and units
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-43]</strong> Convey calculations for gradient of straight line using triangl
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-44]</strong> Determine intercept of straight line graph
</div>
<h2>Key Concepts</h2>
<h3>Taking Readings and Averaging</h3>
<p>Science depends on precise measurements, but absolute accuracy isn't always possible. Random error
<h3>Measurement Instruments</h3>
<ul>
<li><strong>Rulers/Calipers:</strong> Down to fraction of millimeter</li>
<li><strong>Micrometers/Dial gauges:</strong> As small as ten microns</li>
<li><strong>SEM/AFM:</strong> Nanometer/picometer range</li>
<li><strong>Stopwatches:</strong> Hundredths of second</li>
<li><strong>High-speed cameras:</strong> Milliseconds</li>
<li><strong>Electronic timers:</strong> Nanoseconds</li>
<li><strong>Laser techniques:</strong> Femtoseconds</li>
</ul>
<h3>Graph Analysis Concepts</h3>
<h4>Labeling Axes</h4>
<p>Quantity tells WHAT is measured; unit specifies SCALE. Essential for interpreting graph accurately
<h4>Slope (Gradient)</h4>
<div class="formula-box">
Slope = ∆y / ∆x = (y■ − y■) / (x■ − x■)
</div>
<ul>
<li>Positive gradient: y increases as x increases</li>
<li>Negative gradient: opposite</li>
<li>Zero gradient: flat line (no change in y)</li>
</ul>
<h4>Y-Intercept</h4>
<p>Point where line crosses y-axis. Tells y-value when x = 0 (e.g., initial height of bouncing ball).
<h3>Inclined Plane Theory</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
<strong>Inclined Plane:</strong> Plane which makes specific angle with horizontal. Angle is calle
</div>
<p>For ball rolling down inclined plane:</p>
<div class="formula-box">
Initial velocity v■ = 0 → Final velocity v■ = v<br>
Time interval ∆t = T<br><br>
Acceleration a = (v■ − v■) / ∆t = v / T
</div>
<p>Distance traveled s, time T:</p>
<div class="formula-box">
Average velocity v■■■ = s / T<br>
Also v■■■ = (v■ + v■) / 2 = v / 2<br><br>
Therefore: s/T = v/2 → v = 2s/T<br><br>
Substituting: a = (2s/T) / T = 2s/T²
</div>
<!-- EXPERIMENT 3 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 3: Study Motion of Ball Rolling Down Angled Iron (Graph
<h4>Apparatus:</h4>
<p>Angle iron, Steel ball, Stopwatch, Stand, Graph paper, Geometry box</p>
<h4>Procedure:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Set angle iron on stand with one end 5-10 cm higher than other end.</li>
<li>Release ball 80 cm from finishing point.</li>
<li>Start stopwatch as ball released; stop when ball strikes end.</li>
<li>Record time and corresponding distance.</li>
<li>Repeat; find mean time t of two observations.</li>
<li>Repeat for distances: 100 cm, 120 cm, 140 cm, 160 cm.</li>
<li>Plot graph between S (y-axis) and T² (x-axis).</li>
</ol>
<h4>Graph Analysis:</h4>
<p>Slope calculation method:</p>
<ol>
<li>Pick two points P■ and P■ on line</li>
<li>Determine coordinates (x■,y■) and (x■,y■)</li>
<li>Find ∆x = x■−x■ and ∆y = y■−y■</li>
<li>Slope = ∆y/∆x</li>
</ol>
<p>Since plotting 2s vs T²: slope = acceleration a</p>
<div class="precaution-box">
<strong>Precautions:</strong>
<ul>
<li>Clean angle iron thoroughly before starting</li>
<li>Steel ball should be smooth and clean</li>
<li>Keep inclination small for small acceleration (minimize timing error)</li>
<li>Angle of inclination must remain constant for all observations</li>
<li>Start/stop stopwatch simultaneously with ball release/strike</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- VIVA VOCE ANSWERS - UNIT 4 -->
<h2>VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - Unit 4</h2>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 1: What is inclined plane?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Plane which makes specific angle with horizontal is called inclined
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 2: Why do we use inclined plane?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Inclined plane helps us to drag heavy loads easily.
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 3: Define acceleration. What are its units?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Acceleration is defined as time rate of change of velocity of body.
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 4: Why is acceleration of body moving on inclined plane uniform?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Force under which ball moves is component of weight (mg sin θ). Sinc
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 5: Why are graphs used?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Graphs transform collected measurements into visual representations,
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 6: What is slope of a graph?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Slope means vertical coordinate difference divided by horizontal coo
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 7: Why is time taken along x-axis?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Placing time on x-axis is consistent with conventions of graphing mo
</div>
</div>
<hr class="page-break">
<!-- UNIT 5: SIMPLE PENDULUM -->
<h1 class="unit-title">UNIT 5: SIMPLE PENDULUM</h1>
<h2>Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs)</h2>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-10-N-07]</strong> Visualize how collected data would be tabulated or graphed
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-28]</strong> Timing motion or oscillations
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-32]</strong> Record measured and calculated quantities with correct units
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-33]</strong> Organize tabulated results with heading, name/symbol, and appro
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-36]</strong> Plot data points to accuracy better than half of smallest squar
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-37]</strong> Plot data points using small crosses or circles around them
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-42]</strong> Sketch lines of best fit with equal number of points on either
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-45]</strong> Take readings from graphs by extrapolation or interpolation
</div>
<h2>Theory</h2>
<h3>Simple Pendulum</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Consists of bob hung with very light inextensible string.
</div>
<h3>Time Period</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Time required to complete one vibration is called time period (T).
</div>
<div class="formula-box">
T = 2π√(l/g)
</div>
<p>Where l = length of pendulum, g = gravitational acceleration</p>
<h3>Finding g from Pendulum Equation</h3>
<p>Squaring and rearranging:</p>
<div class="formula-box">
T² = 4π²(l/g)<br>
Therefore: l = (g/4π²) × T²
</div>
<p>Plotting l vs T² gives straight line. Slope = g/4π², hence g can be calculated.</p>
<h2>Data Organization</h2>
<p>Tables organize data in rows/columns with headers. Important for identifying trends, clear communi
<h2>Graphical Analysis Techniques</h2>
<h3>Plotting Data Points</h3>
<ul>
<li>Use small crosses (×) or circles (■) around points</li>
<li>Plot to accuracy better than half of smallest grid square</li>
<li>This minimizes errors in analysis and interpretation</li>
</ul>
<h3>Line of Best Fit</h3>
<ul>
<li>Sketch line with equal number of points on either side over entire length</li>
<li>Avoids skewing interpretation</li>
<li>Accurately represents central tendency</li>
</ul>
<h3>Extrapolation vs Interpolation</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
<strong>Extrapolation:</strong> Extending plot line beyond dataset (dashed line) to estimate valu
</div>
<div class="definition-box">
<strong>Interpolation:</strong> Estimating data points WITHIN range of known data points. More re
</div>
<!-- EXPERIMENT 4 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 4: Verify Time Period Directly Proportional to √length;
<h4>Apparatus:</h4>
<p>Bobs of different masses, Iron stand, Vernier Caliper, Thread, Stopwatch, Meter rod, Split cor
<h4>Procedure:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Measure bob diameter using vernier caliper/screw gauge; find radius.</li>
<li>Suspend bob by inextensible string; measure pendulum length (string + hook + bob radius).
<li>Slightly disturb bob; start stopwatch for 15-20 vibrations.</li>
<li>Repeat; calculate mean time period.</li>
<li>Change pendulum length; repeat experiment.</li>
<li>Repeat for different lengths; plot graph between T² and L (straight line).</li>
</ol>
<h4>Calculations:</h4>
<div class="formula-box">
Percentage Error = |Measured value − Actual value| / Actual value × 100%
</div>
<div class="precaution-box">
<strong>Precautions:</strong>
<ul>
<li>Bob should not strike stand or ground</li>
<li>Bob should not be disturbed very hard</li>
<li>Pendulum should not revolve; assure oscillation in one dimension only</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- VIVA VOCE ANSWERS - UNIT 5 -->
<h2>VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - Unit 5</h2>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 1: What is simple pendulum?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> It consists of bob, which is hung with very light inextensible strin
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 2: Define time period?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Time required to complete one vibration is called time period of tha
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 3: Does time period depend on gravitational field strength g?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Yes, time period of simple pendulum is inversely proportional to squ
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 4: Is it possible to suspend stone instead of bob?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Yes, if stone has nearly uniform geometrical shape so we could find
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 5: How does g vary above Earth's surface?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Value of gravitational field strength g decreases on moving up from
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 6: What is value of g at poles and equator (cm/s²)?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> At poles: 983.22 cm/s²; At equator: 978.03 cm/s²
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 7: Differentiate between data points and dataset?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong>
• <strong>Data points:</strong> Individual observations/measurements obtained from experiment
• <strong>Dataset:</strong> Collection of related data points organized in structured format
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 8: Why express experimental data in tables?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Tables provide structured, organized way to present data, making eas
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 9: Which plotting technique increases accuracy?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Sketch lines of best fit with equal number of points on either side
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 10: What is experimental plot line? Benefits of extrapolation and interpola
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong>
<strong>Experimental plot line:</strong> Visual representation of relationship between two va
<strong>Extrapolation benefits:</strong> Estimate values outside range of collected data; use
<strong>Interpolation benefits:</strong> Estimate values between existing data points; more r
</div>
</div>
<hr class="page-break">
<!-- UNIT 6: HELICAL SPRING -->
<h1 class="unit-title">UNIT 6: HELICAL SPRING</h1>
<h2>Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs)</h2>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-10-N-06]</strong> Identify appropriate apparatus for collecting data
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-18]</strong> Use stopwatch to measure intervals of time, including period of
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-22]</strong> Determine derived quantity such as extension per unit load for
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-35]</strong> Use scales allowing majority of graph paper to be used, based o
</div>
<h2>Theory</h2>
<h3>Helical Spring</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Coiled wire fastener that stores energy by deformation (twisting/compressing) when force applied.
</div>
<h3>Hooke's Law</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
When force applied on elastic material, deformation produced under elastic limit.
</div>
<div class="formula-box">
F = kx<br>
Where F = force, x = extension, k = spring constant
</div>
<h3>Spring Constant (k)</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Property of spring indicating stiffness. Measure of force required to stretch/compress spring by
</div>
<h3>Mass-Spring System</h3>
<p>When load hung with spring under gravity, system is mass-spring system.</p>
<h3>Time Period of Oscillation</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Time taken for system to complete one full oscillation/cycle: from initial position → maximum di
</div>
<div class="formula-box">
T = 2π√(m/k)
</div>
<p>Can rearrange to find spring constant: k = 4π²m/T²</p>
<h2>Selection of Scale for Graphs</h2>
<ul>
<li>Consider accuracy and clarity</li>
<li>Determine range of values for both axes</li>
<li>Evenly distribute scale</li>
<li>Choose intervals allowing precise measurement</li>
<li>Use consistent units and labels</li>
<li>Spread data points (don't crump into corner)</li>
</ul>
<h3>Spring Balance</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Simple device to measure force. Coiled spring stretches when force applied; pointer moves on grad
</div>
<p><strong>Using Spring Balance:</strong></p>
<ol>
<li>Check calibration; correct zero adjustment</li>
<li>Hang vertically from fixed point in stable position</li>
<li>Record initial reading (zero force)</li>
<li>Attach object to hook/ring</li>
<li>Record new reading (force exerted by weight)</li>
<li>Force = Final Reading − Initial Reading</li>
</ol>
<h3>Equilibrium Conditions</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
When all external forces (including moments) acting on object are balanced. Net result = zero.
</div>
<ul>
<li><strong>First Condition:</strong> Algebraic sum of all forces = 0 (ΣF = 0)</li>
<li><strong>Second Condition:</strong> Sum of all torques = 0 (Στ = 0)</li>
</ul>
<!-- EXPERIMENT 5 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 5: Determine Spring Constant of Helical Spring (Load Ext
<h4>Apparatus:</h4>
<p>Helical spring, Slotted weights with pointer and hanger, Scale, Stopwatch</p>
<h4>Procedure:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Take helical spring; attach hanger with pointer at lower end.</li>
<li>Suspend from stand; adjust so pointer moves freely on scale.</li>
<li>Note initial pointer position before attaching weight.</li>
<li>Attach weight; pointer moves lower.</li>
<li>Set spring oscillating by slight displacement; start stopwatch at equilibrium. Count osci
<li>Record extension ∆x and time for oscillations.</li>
<li>Repeat for 6-8 different weights.</li>
<li>Calculate average time per oscillation; use F=k∆x to find k.</li>
<li>Plot F vs ∆x graph; slope = spring constant k.</li>
<li>Verify with oscillation method values.</li>
</ol>
<div class="precaution-box">
<strong>Precautions:</strong>
<ul>
<li>Pointer should not touch scale</li>
<li>Increase weight in regular steps</li>
<li>Spring should not be stretched beyond elastic limit</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- EXPERIMENT 6 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 6: Find Tension in String by Balancing Meter Rod on Stan
<h4>Apparatus:</h4>
<p>Two spring balances, Two iron stands, Meter rod, Wedge, Weight box, Thread</p>
<h4>Procedure:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Suspend two spring balances vertically on two iron stands using string loops.</li>
<li>Balance meter rod by adjusting stands until horizontal; both show equal reading.</li>
<li>Note spring balance readings (tension in loops).</li>
<li>Place additional weight on meter rod.</li>
<li>Readings increase → tension increases.</li>
<li>Record data: T = W■ + W■ (meter rod weight + suspended weight).</li>
</ol>
<div class="precaution-box">
<strong>Precautions:</strong>
<ul>
<li>Carefully note zero error of spring balances</li>
<li>Zero error must be taken into account</li>
<li>Balance/thread loops carrying rod should be vertical</li>
<li>Meter rod should be suspended close to edges</li>
<li>Heavy weight should be suspended at center of gravity</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- VIVA VOCE ANSWERS - UNIT 6 -->
<h2>VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - Unit 6</h2>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 1: What is helical spring?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> A helical spring is coiled wire fastener that stores energy by defor
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 2: What is time period of oscillation for mass-spring system?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Time taken for system to complete one full oscillation or complete c
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 3: Define Hooke's Law?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> When force is applied on elastic material, deformation will be produ
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 4: What is spring constant?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Ratio of force exerted to change produced is termed as spring consta
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 5: Will spring constant remain same for all springs?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> No, spring constant is different for different springs (depends on m
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 6: How important is selection of scale for graph?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Very important! Provides easy measurement, understanding, and visual
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 7: What is spring balance?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Spring balance (also called spring scale or newton meter) is simple
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 8: What is equilibrium?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> When all external forces (including moments) acting on object are ba
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 9: What is elasticity?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Ability of object to recover original size and shape after deforming
</div>
</div>
<hr class="page-break">
<!-- UNIT 7: DENSITY AND FLUIDS -->
<h1 class="unit-title">UNIT 7: DENSITY AND FLUIDS</h1>
<h2>Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs)</h2>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-11]</strong> Take steps to avoid parallax error
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-14]</strong> Take correct meniscus readings
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-25]</strong> Comparing derived quantities such as density
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-26]</strong> Cooling and heating, including measurement of temperature
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-31]</strong> Procedures using simple apparatus in unfamiliar situations
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-46]</strong> Identify whether experimental procedure has validity regarding
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-47]</strong> Identify whether experimental procedure is reliable; suggest ch
</div>
<h2>Theory</h2>
<h3>Density</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Density of substance is defined as mass per unit volume. Gold denser than lead because gold has m
</div>
<div class="formula-box">
ρ = m / V<br>
S.I. unit: kg/m³
</div>
<h3>Measuring Density of Solids</h3>
<h4>Measuring Mass</h4>
<p>Use laboratory balance (triple-beam or electronic top pan balance).</p>
<h4>Measuring Volume - Regular Shapes</h4>
<ul>
<li><strong>Cube:</strong> V = l × w × h (measure dimensions with ruler)</li>
<li><strong>Cylinder:</strong> V = πr²h (measure radius and height)</li>
<li><strong>Sphere:</strong> V = (4/3)πr³ (measure diameter)</li>
</ul>
<h4>Measuring Volume - Irregular Shapes (Displacement Method)</h4>
<ol>
<li>Fill measuring cylinder with water; record initial volume V■</li>
<li>Attach thread to object; lower into cylinder</li>
<li>Record final volume V■ (water + object)</li>
<li>Volume of object = V■ − V■</li>
</ol>
<h3>Measuring Density of Liquids</h3>
<ol>
<li>Weigh empty measuring cylinder (mass m■)</li>
<li>Pour liquid; measure volume V</li>
<li>Weigh cylinder + liquid (mass m■)</li>
<li>Mass of liquid = m■ − m■</li>
<li>Density ρ = (m■ − m■) / V</li>
</ol>
<h3>Meniscus Reading</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Meniscus is curved surface of liquid in container. Readings taken at LOWEST point of curve for co
</div>
<h4>Avoiding Parallax Error</h4>
<div class="important-note">
Position eye at SAME LEVEL as meniscus. Parallax error occurs when apparent position changes due
</div>
<h3>Latent Heat</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Heat required to change physical state of substance WITHOUT changing temperature.
</div>
<h4>Latent Heat of Fusion</h4>
<p>Heat energy to convert solid → liquid (or vice versa) without temperature change.</p>
<h4>Latent Heat of Vaporization</h4>
<p>Heat energy to convert liquid → gas (or vice versa) without temperature change.</p>
<!-- EXPERIMENT 7 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 7: Graph Between Temperature and Time (Ice → Water → S
<h4>Apparatus:</h4>
<p>Ice, Thermometer, Stirrer, Spirit lamp, Beaker, Stand, Stopwatch</p>
<h4>Procedure:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Place ice pieces in beaker on stand.</li>
<li>Hang thermometer with mercury end touching ice.</li>
<li>Heat slowly using spirit lamp.</li>
<li>Record temperature every minute using stopwatch.</li>
<li>Observe: ice melts → water heats → water boils → steam forms.</li>
<li>Draw graph: Time (X-axis) vs Temperature (Y-axis).</li>
</ol>
<h4>Graph Interpretation:</h4>
<ul>
<li>Temperature rises until 0°C (ice heating)</li>
<li>Horizontal line at 0°C (melting - latent heat of fusion)</li>
<li>Temperature rises again (water heating)</li>
<li>Horizontal line at 100°C (boiling - latent heat of vaporization)</li>
<li>Beyond 100°C: steam formation</li>
</ul>
<div class="precaution-box">
<strong>Precautions:</strong>
<ul>
<li>Bulb of thermometer should NOT touch bottom of beaker</li>
<li>Note temperature and time simultaneously</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- ACTIVITY SUMMARIES -->
<h2>Activity Summaries</h2>
<h3>Activity 3: Measuring Density of Solid Objects</h3>
<p>Distribute regular shapes (cube, cylinder, sphere). Measure mass with balance. Calculate volume us
<h3>Activity 4: Measuring Density of Liquid</h3>
<p>Fill graduated cylinder ~50ml with unknown liquids. Weigh empty cylinder, then cylinder+liquid. Ca
<h3>Activity 5: Meniscus Reading Practice</h3>
<p>Select container; place on level surface. Position eye at meniscus level. For concave (water): rea
<!-- VIVA VOCE ANSWERS - UNIT 7 -->
<h2>VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - Unit 7</h2>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 1: Define density?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Density of substance is defined as its mass per unit volume. ρ = m/V
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 2: In density measurement, why take multiple measurements and calculate ave
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Taking multiple measurements helps account for errors/variations. Ca
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 3: Are steps followed in density activities valid and reliable?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Yes, for these reasons:<br>
• <strong>Alignment with Objectives:</strong> Clear objectives aligned with understanding den
• <strong>Appropriate Design:</strong> Standard measurement techniques enhance reliability<br
• <strong>Accuracy:</strong> Emphasis on calibrated instruments and multiple measurements<br>
• <strong>Consistency with Theory:</strong> Follows established principles/formulas<br>
• If peer-reviewed and validated through implementation, further supports validity
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 4: What is latent heat of fusion?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Amount of heat needed to convert 1 kg of solid into liquid without c
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 5: What is latent heat of vaporization?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Amount of heat needed to evaporate 1 kg of liquid into steam without
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 6: Why does temperature remain same during melting or boiling?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> During melting/boiling, heat supplied is used to CHANGE STATE of mat
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 7: Can you measure Earth's radius of curvature with spherometer?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> No, since radius of curvature of Earth is so large that value of h (
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 8: How does parallax affect meniscus reading?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong>
• Eye ABOVE meniscus level → bottom of curve appears LOWER → UNDERESTIMATE volume<br>
• Eye BELOW meniscus level → bottom appears HIGHER → OVERESTIMATE volume<br>
Always position eye at same level as meniscus for accurate reading.
</div>
</div>
<hr class="page-break">
<!-- UNIT 8: ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS -->
<h1 class="unit-title">UNIT 8: ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS</h1>
<h2>Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs)</h2>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-19]</strong> Use both analogue scales and digital displays
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-23]</strong> Testing and identifying relationship between two variables (e.g
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-29]</strong> Electric circuits including connection, reconnection, measureme
</div>
<h2>Theory</h2>
<h3>Ohm's Law</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Current flowing through conductor is DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to potential difference applied across
</div>
<div class="formula-box">
I ∝ V → I = V/R → V = IR
</div>
<p>Where R = resistance (proportionality constant)</p>
<h3>Resistance</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Opposition to flow of charge. Depends on material, cross-sectional area, and length.
</div>
<div class="formula-box">
R = ρL/A<br>
Where ρ = resistivity, L = length, A = cross-sectional area
</div>
<h3>Relationship Between Length and Voltage</h3>
<p>From V = IR and R = ρL/A:</p>
<div class="formula-box">
V = I(ρL/A)<br>
Therefore: V ∝ L (when I, ρ, A constant)
</div>
<p><strong>Voltage directly proportional to wire length!</strong></p>
<h3>Analogue vs Digital Instruments</h3>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Aspect</th>
<th>Analogue</th>
<th>Digital</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Precision</td>
<td>Lower (more scatter)</td>
<td>Higher (smoother curves)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Reading Errors</td>
<td>User interpretation needed</td>
<td>Numerical display (less error)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Data Digitization</td>
<td>Requires conversion (potential error)</td>
<td>Direct numerical data</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Resolution</td>
<td>May offer finer resolution</td>
<td>Limited by display</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<h2>Combination of Resistors</h2>
<h3>Series Combination</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Resistors connected end-to-end; single path for current.
</div>
<ul>
<li>Same current through all resistors: I■ = I■ = I■ = I</li>
<li>Voltage divides: ∆V = ∆V■ + ∆V■ + ∆V■</li>
</ul>
<div class="formula-box">
R_eq = R■ + R■ + R■ + ...<br>
(Equivalent resistance GREATER than individual)
</div>
<h3>Parallel Combination</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Resistors connected across same two points; multiple paths for current.
</div>
<ul>
<li>Same voltage across all: ∆V■ = ∆V■ = ∆V■ = ∆V</li>
<li>Current divides: I = I■ + I■ + I■</li>
</ul>
<div class="formula-box">
1/R_eq = 1/R■ + 1/R■ + 1/R■ + ...<br>
(Equivalent resistance LESS than smallest individual)
</div>
<!-- EXPERIMENT 8 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 8: Investigate Relationship Between Length and Voltage i
<h4>Apparatus:</h4>
<p>Copper wire (different lengths), Power source, Voltmeter, Crocodile clips/connecting wires, Ru
<h4>Procedure:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Set up circuit as shown in diagram; ensure secure connections.</li>
<li>Connect flying lead to 20 cm mark; record voltmeter and ammeter readings.</li>
<li>Increase length by connecting flying lead further along wire; record new readings.</li>
<li>Repeat for various lengths; record data accurately.</li>
<li>Plot graph: Voltage (y-axis) vs Length (x-axis).</li>
</ol>
<h4>Expected Result:</h4>
<p>Graph is STRAIGHT LINE → direct relationship between voltage and wire length (V ∝ L).</p>
<div class="precaution-box">
<strong>Precautions:</strong>
<ul>
<li>Turn off power source and disconnect circuit when finished</li>
<li>Store materials properly; dispose waste per teacher instructions</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- EXPERIMENT 9 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 9: Study Resistors in Series and Parallel Combinations</
<h4>Apparatus:</h4>
<p>Voltmeter, Ammeter, Battery, Three resistance boxes, Connecting wires with crocodile clips</p>
<h4>Procedure - Series:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Adjust resistance boxes to known values; record.</li>
<li>Connect three resistances in series across battery through ammeter.</li>
<li>Connect voltmeter across series combination.</li>
<li>Note voltmeter reading V and ammeter reading I.</li>
<li>Calculate R_eq = V/I; verify R_eq = R■ + R■ + R■.</li>
<li>Change resistance values; repeat.</li>
</ol>
<h4>Procedure - Parallel:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Connect three resistances in parallel across battery through ammeter.</li>
<li>Connect voltmeter across parallel combination.</li>
<li>Note V and I; calculate R_eq = V/I.</li>
<li>Verify: 1/R_eq = 1/R■ + 1/R■ + 1/R■.</li>
<li>Change values; repeat.</li>
</ol>
<div class="precaution-box">
<strong>Precautions:</strong>
<ul>
<li>Connections must be tight</li>
<li>Ammeter connected in SERIES; voltmeter in PARALLEL</li>
<li>Avoid drawing large current for long intervals</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- VIVA VOCE ANSWERS - UNIT 8 -->
<h2>VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - Unit 8</h2>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 1: State Ohm's Law.</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Potential difference across conductor is directly proportional to cu
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 2: Define resistance and its units.</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Opposition to flow of charge is called resistance. Denoted by R. S.I
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 3: What factors does resistance depend on?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Resistance depends on:<br>
(i) Length of conductor<br>
(ii) Area of cross-section<br>
(iii) Nature of material<br>
(iv) Temperature
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 4: Relationship between conductor length and potential difference?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Potential difference V across wire is directly proportional to its l
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 5: Basic elements of electric circuit?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> (i) Connecting wires, (ii) Resistance wire, (iii) Power supply
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 6: How are ammeter and voltmeter connected?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Ammeter connected in SERIES in circuit; voltmeter connected in PARAL
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 7: In which combination is net resistance greater?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Resistance is greater in SERIES combination (R_eq = sum of all resis
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 8: Define equivalent resistance.</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Single resistance which allows same current as different resistances
</div>
</div>
<hr class="page-break">
<!-- UNIT 9: OPTICS -->
<h1 class="unit-title">UNIT 9: OPTICS</h1>
<h2>Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs)</h2>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-24]</strong> Comparing measured quantities such as angles of reflection
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-17]</strong> Make measurements using common laboratory apparatus (scales, pr
</div>
<div class="slo-box">
<strong>[SLO: P-09-N-30]</strong> Optics experiments using pins, mirrors, prisms, lenses, glass/P
</div>
<h2>Theory</h2>
<h3>Reflection of Light</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Light changes direction when hits smooth surface or mirror. Shiny surfaces (stainless steel, spoo
</div>
<h4>Key Terms:</h4>
<ul>
<li><strong>Incident ray:</strong> Ray coming towards surface</li>
<li><strong>Reflected ray:</strong> Ray bouncing off surface</li>
<li><strong>Point of incidence:</strong> Where incident ray strikes surface</li>
<li><strong>Normal:</strong> Line perpendicular to reflecting surface at point of incidence</li>
<li><strong>Angle of incidence (θ■):</strong> Angle between incident ray and normal</li>
<li><strong>Angle of reflection (θ■):</strong> Angle between reflected ray and normal</li>
</ul>
<h3>Laws of Reflection</h3>
<div class="important-note">
<strong>First Law:</strong> Incident ray, reflected ray, and normal all lie in SAME PLANE.<br><br
<strong>Second Law:</strong> Angle of reflection equals angle of incidence (θ■ = θ■).
</div>
<h3>Transmission of Light</h3>
<h4>Transparent Materials</h4>
<p>Let light pass easily with minimal absorption/scattering. Examples: air, water, clear glass.</p>
<h4>Translucent Materials</h4>
<p>Allow some light through but scatter it (objects appear blurry). Examples: frosted glass, thin pap
<h4>Opaque Materials</h4>
<p>Do NOT let light pass (absorbed or bounced). Examples: wood, metal, thick walls.</p>
<h3>Refraction</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Bending of light rays passing from one transparent medium to another with different optical densi
</div>
<ul>
<li>Entering denser medium → slows down → bends TOWARDS normal</li>
<li>Entering less dense medium → speeds up → bends AWAY from normal</li>
</ul>
<h3>Prism</h3>
<div class="definition-box">
Piece of transparent material (glass) cut with precise angles and plane faces. Triangular prism s
</div>
<h4>Deviation Through Prism</h4>
<ul>
<li>Light enters glass → bends toward normal (higher refractive index)</li>
<li>Light exits to air → bends away from normal</li>
<li>Direction of emergent ray ≠ direction of incident ray</li>
<li>Change in direction = <strong>angle of deviation (δ)</strong></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Minimum deviation occurs</strong> when angle of incidence = angle of emergence (symmetric
<p>For each observation: θ■ + θ■ = A + δ (where A = angle of prism)</p>
<h3>Lenses</h3>
<h4>Convex Lens (Converging)</h4>
<p>Thick at centre, thin at edges. Parallel rays converge at principal focus (F).</p>
<h4>Concave Lens (Diverging)</h4>
<p>Thin at centre, thick at edges. Parallel rays appear to diverge from focus.</p>
<h4>Lens Equation</h4>
<div class="formula-box">
1/f = 1/d■ + 1/d■<br>
Where f = focal length, d■ = object distance, d■ = image distance
</div>
<h4>Types of Images</h4>
<table>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Type</th>
<th>Formation</th>
<th>Characteristics</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Real Image</td>
<td>Rays actually meet at point</td>
<td>Can project on screen; usually inverted</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Virtual Image</td>
<td>Rays appear to meet (extended backward)</td>
<td>Cannot project; usually upright</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<!-- EXPERIMENT 10 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 10: Verify Laws of Reflection Using Mirror, Pins, and Pr
<h4>Apparatus:</h4>
<p>Drawing board, White paper, Four pins, Protractor, Thin plane mirror with support, Sharpened p
<h4>Procedure:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Fix white paper on drawing board with pins/tape.</li>
<li>Place mirror vertically on paper in middle; draw line AB along mirror edge.</li>
<li>Mark point O on AB; draw dotted normal ON perpendicular to AB.</li>
<li>Draw incident ray PO at angle (e.g., 30°) to normal using protractor.</li>
<li>Place mirror vertically on AB with polished face toward PO.</li>
<li>Fix pins P■ and P■ vertically on PO, 5-6 cm apart.</li>
<li>Look from other side of normal; observe images of P■, P■.</li>
<li>Fix pins Q■, Q■ so their tips align with images of P■, P■.</li>
<li>Remove pins and mirror; mark positions; draw lines.</li>
<li>Join P-Q extended to meet AB at O; this is reflected ray OQ.</li>
<li>Measure angles ∠PON (incidence) and ∠NOQ (reflection).</li>
<li>Repeat for 2-3 different angles of incidence.</li>
</ol>
<div class="precaution-box">
<strong>Precautions:</strong>
<ul>
<li>Use accurate measuring instruments for angles</li>
<li>Ensure setup stable; avoid vibrations</li>
<li>Measure angles with respect to normal (perpendicular to surface)</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- EXPERIMENT 11 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 11: Investigate Light Transmission Through Different Mat
<h4>Apparatus:</h4>
<p>Flashlight, White paper (screen), Cardboard box (dark chamber), Transparent materials (glass,
<h4>Procedure:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Create dark chamber: cut peephole on one side, larger opening for screen on opposite side
<li>Turn off room lights; shine flashlight at peephole → bright circle on screen.</li>
<li>Hold material between flashlight and peephole; observe screen.</li>
<li><strong>Transparent:</strong> Clear bright circle → light passes easily.</li>
<li><strong>Translucent:</strong> Faint diffused light → some passes but scattered.</li>
<li><strong>Opaque:</strong> No light → cannot pass through.</li>
<li>Repeat for all materials; record observations in table.</li>
</ol>
</div>
<!-- EXPERIMENT 12 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 12: Trace Path of Light Through Prism; Measure Angle of
<h4>Apparatus:</h4>
<p>Glass prism, Common pins, Drawing board, Protractor, Drawing sheet, Ruler, Drawing pins, Penci
<h4>Procedure:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Fix drawing sheet on board; place prism in centre with base toward you.</li>
<li>Mark boundary ABC of prism with pencil.</li>
<li>Fix pins P and Q facing first refracting surface; line PQ makes acute angle with face.</l
<li>Look into opposite face AC; locate images of P, Q appearing in straight line.</li>
<li>Fix pins R and S so images of P, Q appear collinear with R, S.</li>
<li>Remove prism and pins; encircle pin positions.</li>
<li>Join P-Q (extend to X meeting AB); join S-R (extend to Y meeting AC).</li>
<li>PX = incident ray; XY = refracted ray; YS = emergent ray.</li>
<li>Extend PX to T and SY to O; angle TOS = angle of deviation D.</li>
<li>Draw normal NXN at X; measure angle of incidence PXN, refraction YXN, deviation TOS.</li>
<li>Draw normal MYM at Y; measure angle of emergence SYM.</li>
<li>Repeat for different angles (40°, 50°, etc.).</li>
</ol>
<div class="precaution-box">
<strong>Precautions:</strong>
<ul>
<li>Mark boundary of prism carefully</li>
<li>Pins should be vertical and well apart</li>
<li>Measure angles carefully</li>
<li>Mark arrows for correct ray directions</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- EXPERIMENT 13 -->
<div class="experiment-box">
<div class="experiment-title">Experiment 13: Determine Focal Length of Convex Lens (Two Pins Meth
<h4>Apparatus:</h4>
<p>Convex lens, Two optical needles, Optical bench with accessories (meter rod, uprights)</p>
<h4>Procedure:</h4>
<ol class="procedure-list">
<li>Find approximate focal length of convex lens.</li>
<li>Place lens on one stand; pins on remaining two stands.</li>
<li>Middle pin = object pin; pin near eye = image pin.</li>
<li>Place object pin at distance > approximate focal length.</li>
<li>Cover tip of image pin with paper; adjust so inverted image of object touches pin tip.</l
<li>Place second needle (image pin) upright on other side of lens.</li>
<li>Look for image of object needle from other side (will be inverted).</li>
<li>Adjust image needle position until no parallax between image and needle tips.</li>
<li>Note positions of object and image needles.</li>
<li>Calculate distances; compute focal length using lens formula.</li>
<li>Repeat 2-3 times for accurate result.</li>
</ol>
<div class="precaution-box">
<strong>Precautions:</strong>
<ul>
<li>Use tip of object pin for simplicity</li>
<li>Lenses should be at same height</li>
<li>Use image of image to avoid eye strain</li>
<li>Object distance should be > 4× focal length</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- VIVA VOCE ANSWERS - UNIT 9 -->
<h2>VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - Unit 9</h2>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 1: What is reflection?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Light changes direction when it hits smooth surface or mirror; this
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 2: Define laws of reflection?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong>
<strong>First Law:</strong> Incident ray, reflected ray, and normal to surface all lie in sam
<strong>Second Law:</strong> Angle of reflection equals angle of incidence (θ■ = θ■).
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 3: What is transmission of light?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Light transmission refers to how light moves through different subst
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 4: Differentiate between transparent and translucent objects?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong>
• <strong>Transparent:</strong> Allow light to pass with minimal absorption/scattering (clear
• <strong>Translucent:</strong> Allow some light through but scatter/diffuse it (objects on o
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 5: What is meant by refraction?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Change in velocity and direction of light on entering from one mediu
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 6: What happens when light enters from denser to rarer medium?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Light bends AWAY FROM NORMAL because of less density of rarer medium
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 7: What is parallax in two-pin experiment and how removed?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Separation between tips of object needle and image needle with motio
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 8: What is prism?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Piece of transparent glass having three rectangular and two triangul
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 9: Define angle of deviation.</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Angle made by incident ray with emergent ray is called angle of devi
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 10: What is angle of prism and its value?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Angle on opposite side of base of prism is called angle of prism. It
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 11: What is meant by focal length of lens?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Distance between optical centre and focus of lens is called focal le
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 12: How distinguish between real and virtual image?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong>
• <strong>Real Image:</strong> Formed by actual intersection of light rays. Can project onto
• <strong>Virtual Image:</strong> Formed by apparent intersection of rays (backward extension
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 13: What is a lens? Types?</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Transparent material/medium bounded by one or two spherical surfaces
• <strong>Convex Lens:</strong> Thick at centre, thin at edges. Converges parallel beam at fo
• <strong>Concave Lens:</strong> Thin at centre, thick at edges. Diverges parallel beam (appe
</div>
</div>
<div class="qa-section">
<p class="question">Q 14: Define principal focus.</p>
<div class="answer">
<strong>Answer:</strong> Point where all rays parallel to principal axis meet after passing t
</div>
</div>
<hr class="page-break">
<!-- APPENDIX: USEFUL FORMULAE -->
<h1 class="unit-title">APPENDIX: USEFUL FORMULAE & CONSTANTS</h1>
<h2>Geometric Formulae</h2>
<table>
<tbody><tr><th>Quantity</th><th>Formula</th></tr>
<tr><td>Area of circle</td><td>A = πr²</td></tr>
<tr><td>Area of cross-section</td><td>A = πr²</td></tr>
<tr><td>Circumference of circle</td><td>C = 2πr</td></tr>
<tr><td>Surface area of sphere</td><td>A = 4πr²</td></tr>
<tr><td>Volume of sphere</td><td>V = (4/3)πr³</td></tr>
<tr><td>Volume of cylinder</td><td>V = πr²l</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h2>Conversion Factors</h2>
<table>
<tbody><tr><th>Quantity</th><th>Conversion</th></tr>
<tr><td>Length</td><td>1 inch = 2.540 cm | 1 cm = 0.3937 inch | 1 ft = 30.48 cm | 1 m = 39.37 inc
<tr><td>Mass</td><td>1 kg = 1000 g | 1 u = 1.6605×10■²■ kg | 1 lb = 4.448 N</td></tr>
<tr><td>Energy</td><td>1 J = 0.7376 ft·lb | 1 ft·lb = 1.356 J | 1 cal = 4.186 J | 1 kW·h = 3.600
<tr><td>Force</td><td>1 N = 0.2248 lb</td></tr>
<tr><td>Time</td><td>1 yr = 365.24 d = 3.156×10■ s | 1 d = 24 h = 1440 min = 8.64×10■ s</td></tr
</tbody></table>
<h2>Fundamental Constants</h2>
<table>
<tbody><tr><th>Quantity</th><th>Symbol</th><th>Value</th></tr>
<tr><td>Avogadro's number</td><td>N_A</td><td>6.02214179×10²³ mol■¹</td></tr>
<tr><td>Speed of light in vacuum</td><td>c</td><td>2.99792458×10■ m/s</td></tr>
<tr><td>Universal gravitational constant</td><td>G</td><td>6.674×10■¹¹ Nm²/kg²</td></tr>
<tr><td>Universal gas constant</td><td>R</td><td>8.314472 J/(mol·K)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h2>Key Physics Formulae Summary</h2>
<h3>Mechanics</h3>
<div class="formula-box">
Velocity: v = s/t | Acceleration: a = (v−u)/t | Force: F = ma<br>
Weight: W = mg | Momentum: p = mv | Kinetic Energy: KE = ½mv²<br>
Potential Energy: PE = mgh | Work: W = Fd | Power: P = W/t
</div>
<h3>Waves & Oscillations</h3>
<div class="formula-box">
Wave speed: v = fλ | Period: T = 1/f | Simple Pendulum: T = 2π√(l/g)<br>
Mass-Spring System: T = 2π√(m/k)
</div>
<h3>Electricity</h3>
<div class="formula-box">
Ohm's Law: V = IR | Resistance: R = ρL/A | Power: P = VI = I²R = V²/R<br>
Series: R_eq = R■+R■+... | Parallel: 1/R_eq = 1/R■+1/R■+...
</div>
<h3>Optics</h3>
<div class="formula-box">
Laws of Reflection: θ■ = θ■ | Mirror formula: 1/f = 1/do + 1/di<br>
Lens formula: 1/f = 1/do + 1/di | Magnification: m = hi/ho = di/do
</div>
<h3>Heat & Thermodynamics</h3>
<div class="formula-box">
Density: ρ = m/V | Specific Heat: Q = mc∆T | Latent Heat: Q = mL
</div>
<div style="text-align: center; margin-top: 50px; padding: 20px; border-top: 3px double #333;">
<p style="font-size: 12pt; color: #555;"><strong>— END OF DOCUMENT —</strong></p>
<p style="font-size: 10pt; color: #777; margin-top: 10px;">Physics Experimentation Skills - Grade
<p style="font-size: 10pt; color: #777;">© 2024 National Book Foundation as Federal Textbook Boar
</div>
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■■
</body></html>
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